En Brasil, la recuperación de plusvalías responde a las necesidades comunitarias
Por Ignacio Amigo, January 12, 2021
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escasos metros del icónico puente Octávio Frias de Oliveira de São Paulo, está el complejo de viviendas Jardim Edite; es difícil no verlo. El llamativo manojo de edificios incluye tres torres residenciales en blanco y negro, posadas sobre coloridas plantas bajas con servicios como un centro de salud pública, una guardería infantil y una escuela culinaria. El complejo ganó varios premios de desarrollo urbano, pero la historia detrás del proyecto es aún más excepcional que su arquitectura.
Hace treinta años, este vecindario era un pantano en las afueras y al sur de la ciudad, y Jardim Edite era el nombre de una favela o asentamiento informal que se había formado allí. Albergaba a cientos de familias, de las cuales la mayoría había llegado del noreste rural de Brasil en un intento por escapar de la pobreza. En los 90, con el crecimiento demográfico de São Paulo y la expansión de su núcleo hacia el sur, esta zona pasó por una transformación radical, y cerca de Jardim Edite surgieron construcciones y labores viales.
La favela original de Jardim Edite. Crédito: Daniela Schneider.
En 2001, los dirigentes de la ciudad aprobaron un programa ambicioso para redesarrollar varios vecindarios, expandir la red de subterráneos y construir el puente Octávio Frias, que cruzaría el río Tietê y conectaría esta zona con el oeste de la ciudad. Las autoridades locales querían reubicar en otras partes de la ciudad a las más de 800 familias que vivían en la favela con el fin de hacer lugar para el proyecto. Sin embargo, los residentes de Jardim Edite dejaron en claro que no se irían de sus casas sin luchar. Crearon una asociación vecinal y declararon públicamente que se oponían al traslado. En 2002 lograron un triunfo importante: el nuevo plan de ordenamiento territorial de la ciudad clasificó a la favela como Zona Especial de Interés Social, una designación de la ley brasilera que se puede usar para garantizar capacidad de pago en áreas que se están urbanizando (Fontes 2011). Esto implicó que los residentes tenían derecho a quedarse cerca, y que la ciudad debía proveerles viviendas.
En los años que siguieron, las inversiones públicas y privadas de la zona dispararon el valor del suelo, que en 2008 llegó a los US$ 4.000 por metro cuadrado, en comparación con los US$ 100 estimados de 1980 (ONU-Hábitat 2010). Los dirigentes de la ciudad detectaron los usos potenciales de la ubicación de Jardim Edite y ofrecieron una pequeña compensación a quienes estuvieran dispuestos a irse, y muchos aceptaron la oferta. Pero otros insistieron, y en 2012, 252 familias recibieron las llaves de un departamento en el flamante complejo de viviendas Jardim Edite (Lacerda Júnior 2016).
“Aquí tenemos todo”, dice José Vilson, dirigente comunitario. “Tenemos transporte público en la puerta, cuatro escuelas públicas [en la zona], una unidad sanitaria justo debajo de la casa”.
Para muchas ciudades, los costos de crear viviendas sociales en zonas cada vez más onerosas habrían sido prohibitivos. Pero en este vecindario y en otros, para generar renta que se pudiera reinvertir en la zona, São Paulo acudió a una innovadora herramienta de financiamiento llamada CEPAC, o Certificados de Potencial Adicional de Construcción.
Los CEPAC son una forma de recuperación de plusvalías. Este enfoque de políticas, que se usa en muchos países de todo el mundo, permite a las comunidades recuperar y reinvertir incrementos de valor del suelo que se obtienen de inversiones públicas y otras acciones gubernamentales. La implementación de la recuperación de plusvalías en Brasil ha sido “sofisticada en extremo”, dice Martim Smolka, director del Programa para América Latina y el Caribe del Instituto Lincoln. Smolka dice que, en particular, los CEPAC “son una idea brillante . . . en São Paulo generaron unos US$ 3.000 millones desde 2004. No millones, miles de millones. Esto es inaudito en todo el mundo”.
Los cimientos de la recuperación de plusvalías
São Paulo es la ciudad más grande de América del Sur y el nodo económico de Brasil. En la zona metropolitana, que cubre más de 7.800 kilómetros cuadrados, viven más de 20 millones de personas, por lo que, en tamaño y población, es parecida a la zona metropolitana de Nueva York.
En toda la región de São Paulo hay zonas acaudaladas con casas lujosas junto a vecindarios atestados y económicamente precarios cuyos residentes construyeron su propia casa con ladrillos y metales. Algunos vecindarios se caracterizan por edificios altos y gran densidad poblacional, mientras que otras zonas son más bucólicas, con arroyos, cascadas y casas dispersas. Dentro de los límites de la ciudad hay decenas de favelas y dos pueblos originarios. Como en muchas ciudades grandes, en São Paulo conviven la pobreza profunda y la riqueza vasta. Esa riqueza es posible, al menos en parte, por decisiones municipales de zonificación e inversiones públicas en infraestructura.
Cuando las ciudades cambian la zonificación y la infraestructura, como permitir mayor densidad, mejorar calles o construir nuevas vías de tren, el valor de las propiedades cercanas tiende a subir. En general, quien paga las mejoras en sí es el público en forma de impuestos y otra renta, pero el aumento en el valor de las propiedades tiende a beneficiar a propietarios privados. En otras palabras, la comunidad paga por mejoras que benefician a unos pocos.
Pero muchas comunidades se dieron cuenta de que esos aumentos en valor se pueden recuperar y reinvertir para el bien público (ver nota de recuadro en página 59). En São Paulo, con el incremento de desarrollos de las últimas décadas, la recuperación de plusvalías ha cumplido una función importante al procurar que el público obtenga ciertos beneficios de los desarrollos privados, en forma de viviendas asequibles, parques, transporte público y otros servicios (Smolka 2013).
El distrito Faria Lima de São Paulo ha sido un foco de redesarrollo urbano. Al cobrar a los desarrolladores ciertos derechos de edificación, la ciudad pudo invertir en transporte público. Crédito: Alfribeiro/iStock.
Para lograrlo, la ciudad cobra a los desarrolladores por el nuevo potencial de desarrollo que se crea mediante rezonificación e inversiones públicas en áreas bien definidas, como edificios más altos o desarrollos con mayor densidad. Estos cargos se pueden destinar a servicios y bienes públicos. Según indican quienes defienden la propuesta, tiene sentido cobrar a los desarrolladores por el derecho a construir estructuras más altas o desarrollos de mayor densidad, porque para los edificios altos se necesitan calles más amplias, mayor presión de agua, redes eléctricas más potentes y otras mejoras en la infraestructura.
En Brasil, esos cargos se conocen como Outorga Onerosa do Direito de Construir (OODC, literalmente “concesión onerosa del derecho de construir”). La Constitución brasilera de 1988 pone el interés público por sobre la ganancia privada, y establece que el objetivo del desarrollo urbano es “garantizar el bienestar” de los ciudadanos y procurar “el total desarrollo de la función social de la propiedad”. Estas ideas se codificaron en 2001 con una ley federal conocida como Estatuto de la Ciudad, la cual estipula que cada ciudad debe incluir pautas de OODC en su plan de ordenamiento territorial y debe aprobar leyes municipales para definir los detalles (Furtado et al. 2012).
Smolka destaca que el sistema se ha enfrentado a objeciones legales según las cuales estos cargos son, en esencia, un impuesto. En 2008, la Corte Suprema de la nación estableció que la OODC no es un impuesto porque los desarrolladores no deben pagar los derechos si no eligen usarlos.
Los dirigentes de São Paulo llevaron el marco de la OODC un poco más allá con los CEPAC, la herramienta que pagó el complejo de viviendas Jardim Edite y el puente Octávio Frias de Oliveira, que está cerca (Sandroni 2010). A diferencia de los cargos tradicionales por los derechos de edificación, cuyo precio establece la ciudad, los CEPAC se venden mediante subasta electrónica, y los desarrolladores pagan lo que creen que valdrán en el mercado.
Los CEPAC se convirtieron en una fuente esencial de renta para São Paulo y otras ciudades de Brasil, como Río de Janeiro y Curitiba. “En esencia, es dinero que, si no existiera este instrumento, iría a los bolsillos de los propietarios en zonas que se beneficiaron con las inversiones públicas”, dice Smolka.
Recuperación de plusvalíasen el mundo
En una era de presupuestos ajustados y necesidades en ebullición, las ciudades de todo el mundo están financiando infraestructura y otras mejoras públicas mediante la recuperación de plusvalías. Este enfoque de políticas involucra una serie de herramientas de financiamiento público que permiten a las comunidades recuperar y reinvertir incrementos de valor del suelo generadas por inversiones públicas y otras acciones gubernamentales. Estos son algunos ejemplos de reinversión:
Entre los años fiscales 2013 y 2016, la ciudad de San Francisco, California, recaudó US$ 423 millones en tasas de impacto (cargos únicos pensados para cubrir los costos asociados con el impacto de un desarrollo en la infraestructura y los servicios públicos). Los fondos se invirtieron en necesidades de transporte, infraestructura para bicicletas y mejoras capitales para peatones, entre otros proyectos.
En Manizales, Colombia, los cobros por valorización (que pagan los propietarios para cubrir el costo de una mejora o servicio público que los beneficia particularmente) contribuyeron con la base de renta de la ciudad para financiar infraestructura y costearon mejoras en las calles, renovación urbana y proyectos notables, como la reforma de la plaza Alfonso Lopez.
Uno de los ejemplos más exitosos de redesarrollo a gran escala en el s. XX es la red ferroviaria del área metropolitana de Tokio, en Japón, que para financiarse usó un componente estratégico: el reajuste de suelo, un modelo en que los propietarios reúnen sus propiedades para concretar un proyecto de redesarrollo y luego reciben lotes más pequeños de mayor valor gracias a las mejoras realizadas.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, usó la Norma de Zonificación Inclusiva de 1998 para crear 1.000 viviendas asequibles para alquiler o compra. Esta norma exige a los desarrolladores que ofrezcan determinada cantidad de viviendas para ingresos bajos o moderados a cambio del derecho de construir propiedades residenciales o comerciales a precio de mercado.
Para realizar una implementación exitosa, es necesario administrar muchos factores complejos y distintas partes interesadas; comprender correctamente las condiciones del mercado territorial; sistemas completos para controlar las propiedades; comunicación fluida entre entidades fiscales, judiciales y de planificación; y determinación política para reconocer todo el potencial de la recuperación de plusvalías.
Adaptado de Land Value Return: Tools to Finance Our Urban Future, un resumen de políticas de Lourdes Germán y Allison Ehrich Bernstein publicado en 2020 por el Instituto Lincoln de Políticas de Suelo (Cambridge, MA).
Gestionar el crecimiento en São Paulo
En comparación con otras ciudades de Brasil, São Paulo tuvo una ventaja en el cobro de derechos de edificación. A fines de los 80, la ciudad estaba negociando un préstamo con el Banco Mundial para un proyecto de recanalización de un río. El Banco Mundial condicionó el préstamo a que la ciudad ofreciera viviendas a personas de bajos ingresos que vivían a orillas del río, muchas de ellas en favelas. Para cumplir con la condición, São Paulo aprobó una ley por la cual los desarrolladores que deseaban construir edificios más altos o desarrollos de mayor densidad debían hacer viviendas sociales o dar dinero al gobierno para que este las hiciera. Esa ley solo duró una década, pero fue una experiencia muy instructiva para la ciudad.
“Aceptaron el trato muchos empresarios que querían deshacerse de favelas ubicadas en tierras que poseían o que necesitaban derechos adicionales de edificación”, dice Paul Sandroni, economista y asociado del Instituto Lincoln. Al principio, los desarrolladores elegían dónde construir las viviendas asequibles. No sorprende que solieran elegir ubicaciones en la periferia urbana, donde el suelo era más barato. Además, la ley no especificaba un tamaño mínimo para las unidades, y estas tendían a ser muy pequeñas. Como resultado, desplazaban a las personas de las favelas en ubicaciones convenientes y las obligaban a trasladarse a viviendas pequeñas e inadecuadas lejos del trabajo, escuelas y otras fuentes de oportunidades. La ciudad corrigió estos vacíos legales, al establecer un tamaño mínimo para las unidades asequibles y asumir la responsabilidad de designar la ubicación. Si bien la ley fue invalidada en 1998 debido a un conflicto con la constitución estatal de São Paulo, en 2001, cuando el gobierno federal codificó la OODC, la ciudad estaba preparada. Rápidamente, São Paulo aprobó un plan de ordenamiento territorial y leyes para implementar la OODC.
El plan regula la densidad del desarrollo en distintos vecindarios mediante el coeficiente de edificabilidad (FAR, por su sigla en inglés). El FAR es una unidad de medida conocida en todo el mundo: se trata de la superficie cubierta total construida en relación con el tamaño del predio que ocupa. Por ejemplo, un FAR de 1.0 admitiría un edificio con un total de 200 metros cuadrados cubiertos en un predio de 200 metros cuadrados. Si se establece un FAR más alto, se puede construir más superficie cubierta. Por ejemplo, con un FAR de 4.0, ese mismo predio de 200 metros cuadrados podría tener un edificio cuatro veces más grande, con una superficie cubierta total de 800 metros cuadrados.
Las ciudades pueden designar un FAR básico (la densidad con la cual puede construir un desarrollador sin pagar cargos) y uno máximo, el desarrollo con mayor densidad permitida en cualquier circunstancia. Los desarrolladores compran derechos de construcción para hacer edificios con el FAR máximo permitido, que suele ser mayor en corredores comerciales, cerca de estaciones de transporte o en otras zonas que los gestores de políticas desean ver crecer.
Con el plan de ordenamiento territorial, las OODC se convirtieron en una fuente prometedora de ingresos para São Paulo. Pero pronto los dirigentes de la ciudad identificaron un problema de ese tipo de transacciones que ocurre en todas partes: si se cobra poco, los bolsillos de los propietarios se llenan de dinero fácil no ganado; si se cobra demasiado, los desarrolladores no querrán pagar. Para responder a esto, la ciudad introdujo los certificados conocidos como CEPAC. Estos se venden mediante subasta electrónica; son una herramienta basada en el mercado cuyo precio se determina con las ofertas de los desarrolladores.
Cada CEPAC permite construir una cantidad específica de metros cuadrados adicionales en una de varias “operaciones urbanas”, que son zonas identificadas como prioritarias para el desarrollo. En São Paulo hay 13 operaciones urbanas, y dos han sido particularmente lucrativas: Água Espraiada, que incluye el complejo de viviendas Jardim Edite, y Faria Lima, que se ha convertido en el centro financiero de la ciudad (SP-Urbanismo 2017). Hoy, ambas áreas son de las más caras de la ciudad, y los CEPAC permitieron al municipio capturar buena parte de esa plusvalía.
Sandroni dice que Faria Lima es un ejemplo drástico del potencial económico de los CEPAC. “Las primeras ofertas [en 2004] no tuvieron muy buenos resultados porque nadie sabía cómo funcionaría el sistema . . . recién en 2006 y 2007 las ofertas empezaron a ser considerables”. Él cree que las ofertas aumentaron no solo porque la gente comprendía mejor la herramienta, sino también porque el mercado inmobiliario era sólido; y desde entonces el mercado de los CEPAC prosperó. En 2010, los desarrolladores compraron los CEPAC de Faria Lima por 4.000 reales cada uno (lo que hoy equivale a US$ 750). Esto implicó un aumento del 363 por ciento respecto del precio inicial de 2004, de 1.100 reales. En la subasta de 2019, cada uno de los 93.000 CEPAC se vendió por la asombrosa suma de 17.601 reales. Solo esa venta le hizo ganar a la ciudad 1.600 millones de reales en renta (más de US$ 400 millones). Los CEPAC de Faria Lima y Água Espraiada recaudaron más de US$ 3.000 millones.
Con esos fondos, la ciudad pudo expandir las viviendas sociales, mejorar el transporte público, y construir y mantener calles y parques, entre otros proyectos. La experiencia de São Paulo destaca el gran potencial de un programa de recuperación de plusvalíasbien implementado. La predisposición de la ciudad para experimentar con distintos métodos y corregir errores sobre la marcha es ejemplar para otras ciudades, como Belo Horizonte, ubicada unos 500 kilómetros al noreste, que está implementando pautas de OODC.
Desafíos en Belo Horizonte
Maria Caldas, secretaria de políticas urbanas de Belo Horizonte (capital del estado de Minas Gerais, en el sudeste de Brasil, de 2,7 millones de habitantes), vivió en persona lo fuerte que puede ser la oposición a las OODC. En 2018 y 2019, Caldas y otros funcionarios fueron víctimas de una intensa campaña de desprestigio por intentar crear las condiciones adecuadas para usar las OODC. “Nunca en mi vida vi algo tan salvaje”, dice. “Había una cantidad increíble de noticias falsas, bots, invadieron mis cuentas de [redes sociales] . . . intentaron llegar al alcalde por mí”.
El centro de la controversia fue un voto sobre el nuevo plan de ordenamiento territorial de Belo Horizonte. Con el plan anterior, los propietarios de muchas partes de la ciudad podían construir al coeficiente de edificabilidad (FAR) máximo sin tener que pagar nada. Así, el concepto de la OODC, respaldado a nivel nacional, era inútil, porque la ciudad no tenía derecho a vender a los desarrolladores. Para resolverlo, el nuevo plan de ordenamiento territorial estableció el FAR básico a 1.0 para toda la ciudad. Los desarrolladores que querían construir con mayor densidad debían pagar el derecho a la ciudad. Según Smolka, cerca del 80 por ciento de la ciudad ya tenía un FAR máximo de 1.0, por lo que la nueva norma solo afectaría a un pequeño porcentaje de las propiedades. Sin embargo, la propuesta generó una oposición feroz.
“Antes de la recesión [de 2015], el mercado inmobiliario tuvo un auge, y los grandes emprendedores inmobiliarios crearon un stock de suelo”, dice Caldas. “Se convirtieron en desarrolladores y propietarios” y no querían pagar por un derecho que antes tenían de forma gratuita.
Belo Horizonte, con sus 2,7 millones de habitantes, es la sexta ciudad más grande de Brasil. Crédito: Elton Menchick/Flickr CC BY 2.0.
Las empresas desarrolladoras se unieron en la Federación de Industrias de Minas Gerais (FIEMG), que cabildea por las empresas industriales del estado. Con el apoyo de la federación, los desarrolladores lanzaron una campaña publicitaria agresiva que condenaba al nuevo plan de ordenamiento territorial. El lema, “basta de impuestos”, ignoraba el hecho de que, tal como lo había establecido la Corte Suprema años antes, la OODC no es un impuesto.
La campaña declaraba que, establecer el FAR básico a 1.0 para toda la ciudad perjudicaría a las personas de bajos ingresos. Un video animado describía cómo el nuevo plan de ordenamiento territorial destruiría los sueños de un personaje ficticio llamado “Seu Pedro”, un residente de un asentamiento informal que ya no podría construir una casa de tres pisos para su familia. Sin embargo, Smolka indica que el dibujo animado mostraba una realidad distorsionada. “Es fácil construir una casa de cuatro pisos con un coeficiente de edificabilidad de uno”, dice y destaca que, si bien la superficie computable de un edificio no puede exceder la superficie del lote, la casa puede tener más de un piso. Ciertas partes, como pasillos, cocheras, balcones y terrazas, no se incluyen en el cálculo de superficie permitida.
La campaña contra las OODC no tuvo buenos resultados en Belo Horizonte. El nuevo plan de ordenamiento territorial se aprobó en junio de 2019 y entró en vigencia en febrero de 2020. Además, el alcalde Alexandre Kalil, víctima de la campaña anti-OODC, fue convenientemente reelecto a fines de 2020. Sin embargo, los desarrolladores sí obtuvieron una victoria: el gobierno municipal permitió un período de transición de tres años en los que se aplicarían los antiguos coeficientes de edificabilidad básicos. Smolka dice que en el período provisorio los desarrolladores podrían acelerar proyectos para aprovechar la oportunidad de construir al FAR máximo sin costos adicionales, pero destaca que la pandemia podría afectar esos planes.
Al final, el gobierno de Belo Horizonte se impuso ante los detractores de la OODC, y dejó en claro que la nueva norma beneficiaría a la ciudad y no afectaría a los ciudadanos comunes. De hecho, permitirá a la ciudad ampliar la disponibilidad de viviendas asequibles, y las ganancias se destinarán a un fondo específico para viviendas sociales.
Según Smolka, es probable que las herramientas de financiamiento basadas en el suelo cobren ímpetu en todo el mundo, ya que las ciudades cortas de efectivo luchan por hallar nuevas formas de financiar infraestructura urbana. “Hay un debate muy grande entre las Naciones Unidas, el Banco Mundial y otros organismos multilaterales sobre el trabajo pendiente en infraestructura a nivel global: hablan de billones de dólares estadounidenses para renovar y construir la infraestructura necesaria”, explica. “Los gobiernos están analizando muchas formas distintas de pagar los costos, y la recuperación de plusvalías es una herramienta clásica para este fin”.
Ignacio Amigo es un excientífico que escribe sobre ciencia, ciudades y medioambiente.
Fotografía: El complejo de viviendas Jardim Edite. En el fondo se distingue el puente Octávio Frias de Oliveira. Crédito: Daniela Schneider, Nelson Kon. Diseño del proyecto: H+F Arquitetos, MMBB Arquitetos.
ONU-Hábitat (Programa de las Naciones Unidas para los Asentamientos Humanos). 2010. “São Paulo: A Tale of Two Cities”. Nairobi, Kenya: Programa de las Naciones Unidas para los Asentamientos Humanos https://unhabitat.org/sao-paulo-a-tale-of-two-cities-2.
2021 Professional Certificate in Municipal Finance – Online
April 5, 2021 - April 9, 2021
Online
Offered in English
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Events in Detroit, Stockton, Flint, and Puerto Rico highlight the severe challenges related to fiscal systems that support public services and the continued stress they face given local governments’ shrinking revenue streams. COVID-19 has only exacerbated this problem.
Whether you want to better understand public-private partnerships, debt and municipal securities, or leading land-based finance strategies, this Professional Certificate in Municipal Finance will teach you to think like a finance professional as you advance your career in urban planning, real estate, community development, or economic development.
Overview
Created by Harris Public Policy’s Center for Municipal Finance and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, this program provides a thorough foundation in municipal finance with a focus on urban planning and economic development. This course will include modules on the following topics:
Capital Budgeting/Accounting and Infrastructure Maintenance
Debt/Municipal Securities
Land-Based Finance/Land Value Capture
Public-Private Partnerships
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Financial Analysis for Land Use and Development Decision Making
Participants will learn how to effectively apply tools of financial analysis to make strategic decisions and gain an improved understanding of the interplay among finance, urban economics, and public policy as it relates to urban planning and economic development.
Upon completion of the program, participants will receive a Certificate in Municipal Finance.
Course Format
Students will be given access to watch pre-recorded lectures and review resources on the Canvas platform several weeks before the live course starts. The total time expected to complete the pre-recordings and readings is 4 to 5 hours. This is just an estimate, as every person learns at their own speed. The live virtual programming will last approximately 2.5 hours each day from April 5 to April 9 and will give students the opportunity to go deeper into the subject matter and have discussions with fellow students and the faculty.
Who Should Attend
Urban planners who work in both the private and public sectors as well as individuals in the economic development, community development, and land development industries.
Cost
Nonprofit and public sector: $1,200
Private sector: $2,250
The Lincoln Institute of Land Policy today launched an initiative to mobilize investment in low-income communities, especially those that have been excluded from access to mainstream financial and wealth-building resources.
The initiative, Accelerating Community Investment (ACI), seeks to create a more fertile environment for philanthropies and other mission-aligned investors to deepen investment in community and economic development, housing, and other areas that benefit society. The initiative will bring public finance officials, impact investors, financial institutions, and communities together to increase the availability of capital in the right place, at the right time and for the right purpose. Accelerating Community Investment includes field research, the creation of mission-oriented investment opportunities, and the convening of a national community of practice.
Supported by the Lincoln Institute and the F.B. Heron Foundation, ACI seeks to bridge the gap between low-income communities and financial markets, foundations, high-net-worth individuals, and other sources of investment and credit.
The initiative seeks to build a network of mission-oriented partners, grounded in community. It will focus on strengthening relationships between Community Development Finance Institutions (CDFIs), which work closely with people and businesses on the ground, and Development Finance Agencies (DFAs) and Housing Finance Agencies (HFAs), public and private entities that issue bonds and facilitate other types of investment in economic development and affordable housing. At the heart of the three-year initiative is a national community of practice of select leaders from these organizations, who will build partnerships, receive training and technical assistance, and identify new investment opportunities.
More than 1,100 in number, CDFIs provided $9 billion in financing in 2018 for people who are underserved by mainstream banks. Among their customers, 85 percent are people with low incomes and 58 percent are people of color. CDFIs have supported small businesses in times of crises, including the aftermath of the September 11 attacks and several natural disasters. During the early months of the COVID-19 crisis, they outperformed larger financial institutions in lending money to small businesses.
Development Finance Agencies include local or state government entities, as well as nonprofit and private sector organizations, that fund economic development through municipal bonds, direct loans, and other vehicles. In 2018, they issued $25 billion in bonds. Housing Finance Agencies are state-chartered institutions that fund affordable housing through bonds, tax credits, and other methods. Together, they financed more than $37 billion in affordable housing development, rehabilitation, and purchase in 2018, and had access to $53 billion in untapped funds.
“Deepening the skills of public finance practitioners and creating connections with impact investors will help to drive investments that improve the quality of life in underserved communities across the country” said Robert J. “R.J.” McGrail senior research fellow for the Lincoln Institute and director of the initiative. “Our development and housing finance partners have not only the capacity to tap large pools of funds, but they and their community partners can also help impact-minded investors place capital and channel it to communities that need it most.”
“Even in communities with effective urban planning and property tax systems, major decisions about land and development are often made based on the wrong criteria. Investment decisions can dramatically improve people’s quality of life and access to opportunity, but not if they’re slavishly predicated on short-term financial returns,” said George W. “Mac” McCarthy, president and CEO of the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. “That’s why the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy launched Accelerating Community Investment—to build the skills and relationships needed to redirect capital to where it can produce better social, environmental and financial returns.”
“Better integration of development and housing finance and community development strategies that will come from the ACI project can help drive more and better projects on the ground and help embed a focus on economic equality and racial justice in public finance,” said David Wood, director of the Initiative for Responsible Investment at Harvard Kennedy School. “A community of practice like this one can build capacity for public finance and connect it to private investors, in support of what’s needed to build back from COVID-19.”
Accelerating Community Investment will make use of private activity bonds, tax-exempt instruments that can be used to fund a number of private sector projects that serve a public purpose such as affordable housing, economic development, access to health care and education, home ownership, and renewable energy. The initiative will also seek to foster the expansion of other financing tools such as direct lending, and to develop new ones.
The initial community of practice is comprised of the following participants.
California
California Housing Finance Agency
California Infrastructure and Economic Development Bank
California Affordable Housing Agency
Golden State Finance Authority
Georgia
Georgia Housing Finance Authority
InvestAtlanta
Kentucky
Kentucky Housing Corporation
Kentucky Cabinet for Economic Development
Greater Clark Foundation
FAHE
LHOME
Louisiana
Louisiana Economic Development
Louisiana Housing Corporation
Finance Authority of New Orleans
Build Baton Rouge
Maine
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Will Jason is director of communications at the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
Photograph: Customers at food trucks in Atlanta, Georgia. Representatives from Georgia, including InvestAtlanta and the Georgia Housing Finance Authority, and 13 other states are participating in the Lincoln Institute’s new Accelerating Community Investment Initiative. Credit: BluIz60/iStock Editorial via Getty Images Plus.
Building Value: In Brazil, Land Value Capture Supports the Needs of the Community
By Ignacio Amigo, January 12, 2021
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Standing just a few meters from São Paulo’s iconic Octávio Frias de Oliveira bridge, the Jardim Edite public housing complex is hard to miss. The eye-catching cluster of buildings includes three black-and-white residential towers perched above brightly colored ground-floor facilities that include a public health center, day care facility, and culinary school. The complex has won several prizes for urban design, but the story behind this project is even more remarkable than its architecture.
Thirty years ago, this neighborhood was on the swampy southern outskirts of the city, and Jardim Edite was the name of a favela, or informal settlement, that had taken shape here. It provided a home for hundreds of families, most of whom had arrived from rural northeastern Brazil in a bid to escape poverty. In the 1990s, as São Paulo’s population grew and its urban core began to expand southward, this area underwent a radical transformation, and construction and roadbuilding near Jardim Edite surged.
The original Jardim Edite favela. Credit: Daniela Schneider.
In 2001, city leaders approved an ambitious program to redevelop several neighborhoods, expand the subway network, and build the Octávio Frias bridge across the Tietê River to connect this area with the west side of the city. To make room for the project, local authorities wanted to relocate the more than 800 families living in the favela to other parts of the city.
The residents of Jardim Edite, however, made it clear that they wouldn’t leave their homes without a fight. They created a neighborhood association and publicly declared their opposition to the relocation. In 2002 they won a major victory: the city’s new master plan classified the favela as a Special Zone of Social Interest, a designation under Brazilian law that can be used to ensure affordability in urbanizing areas (Fontes 2011). This meant the residents had the right to remain in the vicinity—and the city had to provide housing for them. Over the next several years, private and public investments in the area sent the land value soaring to $4,000 per square meter in 2008, compared to an estimated $100 per square meter in 1980 (UN-Habitat 2010). City leaders, eyeing other potential uses for the Jardim Edite site, offered a small amount of compensation to residents who were willing to leave, and many took them up on the offer. But others persevered, and in 2012, 252 families received keys to apartments in the brand-new Jardim Edite housing complex (Lacerda Júnior 2016).
“We have everything here,” says community leader José Vilson. “We have public transport at our door, we have four public schools [in the area], we have a health unit right below our house.” For most cities, the costs of creating public housing in an increasingly expensive area would have been prohibitive. But in this neighborhood and others, São Paulo has relied on an innovative financing tool called CEPACs, or Certificates of Additional Construction Potential, to generate revenue it can reinvest in the area. CEPACs are a form of land value return, also known as land value capture. This policy approach, in use in many countries around the globe, allows communities to recover and reinvest land value increases resulting from government actions and public investment. The implementation of land value capture in Brazil has been “extremely sophisticated,” says Martim Smolka, director of the Program on Latin America and the Caribbean at the Lincoln Institute.
Smolka says CEPACs in particular “are a brilliant idea . . . in São Paulo they have delivered something like $3 billion since 2004. Not millions, billions. This is unprecedented in the world.”
The Building Blocks of Land Value Capture
São Paulo is South America’s largest city and Brazil’s economic hub. More than 20 million people live in the metropolitan area, which extends over more than 3,000 square miles, making it similar in size and population to the New York metropolitan area.
Across the São Paulo region, affluent areas with luxurious houses adjoin crowded, economically precarious neighborhoods where residents have built their own houses out of brick and metal. Some neighborhoods are characterized by tall buildings and high population density, while other areas are more bucolic, with streams, waterfalls, and scattered houses. Within the city limits are dozens of favelas and two indigenous villages. Like many large cities, São Paulo is home to both profound poverty and vast wealth. That wealth is made possible, at least in part, by municipal zoning decisions and public investments in infrastructure.
When cities make changes to zoning and infrastructure, such as allowing greater density, improving roads, or building new rail lines, the value of nearby properties tends to rise. The improvements themselves are typically paid for by the public, in the form of taxes and other revenues, but the rise in property value tends to benefit private landowners. In other words, the community pays for improvements that benefit only a few.
But as many communities have discovered, it is possible to recover these increases in value and reinvest them for the public good. In São Paulo, as development has surged over the last few decades, land value return has played a critical role in ensuring that the public sees some benefit from private development, in the form of affordable housing, parks, public transit, and other amenities (Smolka 2013).
The Faria Lima district of São Paulo has been a focus of urban redevelopment. By charging developers for certain building rights, the city has been able to invest in public transit. Credit: Alfribeiro/iStock.
The city accomplishes that by charging developers for the new development potential created by rezoning and public investments in well-defined areas, such as for taller buildings or more dense developments. Those fees can then be earmarked for public goods and services. Charging developers for the right to build taller structures or denser developments makes sense, say proponents of this approach, because high-rise buildings require wider roads, higher water pressure, more powerful electricity grids, and other infrastructure upgrades.
In Brazil, such charges are broadly known as Outorga Onerosa do Direito de Construir (OODC, literally “onerous grant of the right to build”). The Brazilian Constitution of 1988 puts public interest above private gain, stating that the goal of urban development is to “guarantee the well-being” of citizens and to ensure the “full development of the social function of the property.” These ideas were codified in 2001 through a federal law known as the City Statute, which stipulates that each city must include OODC guidelines in its master plan and must pass municipal laws to define the details (Furtado et al. 2012).
Smolka notes that the system has withstood legal challenges claiming the charges are essentially a tax. In 2008, the nation’s Supreme Court ruled that the OODC is not a tax, because developers do not have to pay for the rights if they do not choose to use them.
In São Paulo, city leaders have taken the OODC framework one step further with CEPACs, the tool that paid for both the Jardim Edite housing complex and the nearby Octávio Frias de Oliveira bridge (Sandroni 2010). Unlike traditional charges for building rights, for which a city sets the price, CEPACs are sold via electronic auction, with developers paying what they think the market will bear. CEPACs have become an essential source of revenue for São Paulo and for other Brazilian cities, including Rio de Janeiro and Curitiba. “This is essentially money that, if you didn’t have this instrument, would be going into the pockets of landowners in areas that have benefited from public investment,” Smolka says.
Land Value Capture Around the Globe
In an era of tight budgets and exploding need, cities around the world are funding infrastructure and other public improvements through land value return, also known as land value capture. This policy approach involves an array of public finance tools that enable communities to recover and reinvest land value increases resulting from public investment and government actions. Examples of reinvestment include the following:
The city of San Francisco, California, collected $423 million in impact fees—one-time charges designed to cover the costs associated with a development’s impact on certain public services and infrastructure—from fiscal year 2013 through 2016. It used the funds to invest in transit needs, bicycle infrastructure, pedestrian capital improvements, and more.
In Manizales, Colombia, betterment fees—which are paid by property owners to defray the cost of a public improvement or service that the owner specifically benefits from—have contributed to the city’s revenue base for urban infrastructure financing and funded road improvements, urban renewal, and notable projects such as the renovation of Alfonso Lopez Plaza.
In one of the most successful examples of large-scale redevelopment in the 20th century, Japan’s Greater Tokyo Railway Network used land readjustment—a model in which landowners pool their properties to accomplish a redevelopment project, then receive smaller parcels of land that have greater value due to the improvements made—as a strategic component of its financing.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, has used its 1998 Inclusionary Zoning Ordinance, which requires developers to provide a certain amount of low- or moderate-income housing in exchange for the right to construct market-rate residential or commercial properties, to create 1,000 units of affordable rental and ownership housing.
Successfully implementing land value return demands the management of many complex factors and diverse stakeholders; proper understanding of land market conditions; comprehensive property-monitoring systems; fluid communication among fiscal, planning, and judicial entities; and the political resolve to realize the full potential of this suite of tools.
Adapted from Land Value Return: Tools to Finance Our Urban Future, a policy brief by Lourdes Germán and Allison Ehrich Bernstein published in 2020 by the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy (Cambridge, MA).
Managing Growth in São Paulo
Compared to other cities in Brazil, São Paulo had a head start in charging for building rights. In the late 1980s, the city was negotiating a loan with the World Bank for a river-rechanneling project. The World Bank conditioned the loan on the city’s providing housing for low-income people who lived along the river’s banks, many of them in favelas. To fulfill this condition, São Paulo passed a law that required developers who wanted to build taller buildings or more dense developments to construct public housing or provide money for the government to do so. The law lasted only a decade, but it provided an invaluable learning experience for the city.
“Many businesspeople who wanted to get rid of favelas on land they owned or who needed additional building rights accepted this deal,” says Paulo Sandroni, an economist and Lincoln Institute associate. Initially, developers chose where to build the affordable housing. Not surprisingly, they often chose sites at the urban periphery, where land was cheaper. Also, the law did not specify a minimum size for these units, which tended to be very small. As a result, people were displaced from favelas in desirable locations and forced to relocate to cramped, inadequate housing far from jobs, schools, and other sources of opportunity. The city fixed these loopholes, setting a minimum size for affordable units and taking over the responsibility of siting them. Though the law was invalidated in 1998 because of a conflict with the São Paulo State Constitution, the city was ready when the federal government codified the OODC in 2001. São Paulo swiftly approved a master plan and passed laws to implement the OODC.
São Paulo’s master plan regulates the density of development in different neighborhoods through floor area ratio (FAR). A common unit of measure worldwide, FAR is the total constructed floor area of a building relative to the size of the parcel it occupies. For example, a FAR of 1.0 would allow a building with a total of 200 square meters of floor space on a parcel of 200 square meters. If the FAR is set higher, more floor area can be constructed. With a FAR of 4.0, for example, that same 200-square-meter parcel could hold a building four times the size, with a total floor area up to 800 square meters.
Cities can designate both a basic FAR—the density at which a developer can build without paying fees—and a maximum FAR, the most dense development permitted under any circumstances. Developers purchase building rights to construct buildings up to the maximum FAR allowed, which is often higher in commercial corridors, near transit stations, or in other areas where policy makers want to see growth.
Under the master plan, OODCs became a promising source of income for São Paulo. But city leaders soon recognized a problem common to such transactions everywhere: charge too little, and you leave unearned windfalls in the pockets of landowners; charge too much, and developers are reluctant to pay.
To address this, the city introduced the certificates known as CEPACs. Sold through electronic auction, CEPACs are a market-based tool whose price is determined by bids from developers. Each CEPAC enables the construction of a specific number of additional square meters in one of several “urban operations,” which are areas identified as priorities for redevelopment.
There are 13 urban operations in São Paulo, two of which have been especially lucrative: Água Espraiada, which includes the Jardim Edite housing complex, and Faria Lima, which has become the city’s financial center (SP-Urbanismo 2017). The two areas are now among the most expensive in the city, and CEPACs allowed the city to capture a good part of this land value increase.
Sandroni says Faria Lima offers a dramatic illustration of the economic potential of CEPACs. “The first bids [in 2004] were not very successful because nobody knew how the system would work . . . only in 2006 and 2007 did bids begin to be substantial.” He believes the bids increased not only because people better understood the tool, but also because the real estate market was strong—and from there, the market for CEPACs boomed. In 2010, developers bought the Faria Lima CEPACs for 4,000 reais each (equivalent to US$750 today). This represented a 363 percent increase from the 2004 starting price of 1,100 reais. In the 2019 auction, each of the 93,000 CEPACs sold for a staggering 17,601 reais. That one sale garnered 1.6 billion reais in revenue for the city (more than US$400 million). Together, Faria Lima and Água Espraiada CEPACs have raised more than US$3 billion.
With those funds, the city has been able to expand public housing, improve public transit, build and maintain roads and parks, and more. The experience in São Paulo highlights the great potential of a well-implemented program of land value capture. The city’s willingness to experiment with different methods and to correct mistakes along the way offers lessons for other cities—including Belo Horizonte, a city about 300 miles to the northeast that is implementing new OODC guidelines.
Challenges in Belo Horizonte
Maria Caldas, the secretary of urban policy for Belo Horizonte—home to 2.7 million people and the capital of Minas Gerais state in southeastern Brazil—has seen firsthand how strong the opposition to the OODC can be. During 2018 and 2019, Caldas and other officials were targeted by an intense smear campaign for trying to create the right conditions to use the OODC. “I have never seen anything wilder in my life,” says Caldas. “There was an incredible amount of fake news, bots, they invaded my [social networks] . . . they tried to hit the mayor through me.”
At the center of this controversy was a vote on Belo Horizonte’s new master plan. Under the old plan, landowners in many parts of the city could build up to the maximum floor area ratio (FAR) without having to pay anything to do so. This rendered the nationally endorsed concept of the OODC useless, as the city did not have any rights to sell to developers. To solve this, the city’s new master plan set the basic FAR at 1.0 for the entire city. Developers who wanted to build more densely would have to pay the city for that right. According to Smolka, about 80 percent of the city already had a maximum FAR of 1.0, so the new rule would affect only a small percentage of properties. Nevertheless, the proposal met with fierce opposition. “Before the recession [of 2015], the real estate market experienced a boom, and the big developer companies created a stock of land,” says Caldas. “They became both developers and landowners” and they didn’t want to pay for a right they had previously gotten for free.
Belo Horizonte, population 2.7 million, is the sixth-largest city in Brazil. Credit: Elton Menchick via Flickr CC BY 2.0.
The development companies united around the Federation of Industries of Minas Gerais (FIEMG), which lobbies for industrial companies in the state. With the federation’s support, the developers launched an aggressive publicity campaign decrying the new master plan. Their slogan was “no more taxes,” ignoring the fact that, as the national Supreme Court had established years earlier, the OODC is not a tax.
The campaign claimed that setting the basic FAR at 1.0 for the whole city would negatively affect low-income people. An animated video described how the new master plan would destroy the dreams of a fictional character called “Seu Pedro,” a resident of an informal settlement who would no longer be able to build a three-story house for his family. However, Smolka says the cartoon showed a distorted reality. “With a floor area ratio of one, you can easily build a four-story house,” he says, noting that although the computable area of a building can’t exceed the area of the plot of land, a house can have more than one story. Elements such as corridors, garages, balconies, and terraces are also not included in the allowed area calculation.
The campaign against the OODC in Belo Horizonte did not succeed. The new master plan was approved in June 2019 and went into force in February 2020. Mayor Alexandre Kalil, a target of the anti-OODC campaign, was also handily reelected in late 2020. However, the developers did score one victory: the municipal government agreed to a three-year transition period during which the old basic floor area ratios would prevail. Smolka says the interim period could see developers speed up projects to take advantage of the opportunity to build up to the maximum FAR at no extra cost, but notes that the pandemic could affect those plans.
Ultimately, the government of Belo Horizonte prevailed against opponents of the OODC, making it clear that the new rule would be good for the city and wouldn’t harm ordinary citizens. In fact, it will allow the city to expand its stock of affordable housing, with proceeds earmarked for a specific public housing fund. Smolka says land-based financing tools will likely gain momentum globally as cash-strapped cities struggle to find new ways to finance urban infrastructure. “There is a big discussion among the United Nations, the World Bank, and other multilateral agencies about the global infrastructure backlog—they talk about trillions of U.S. dollars to renew and build needed infrastructure,” he explains. “Governments are looking at many different ways to pay these costs, and land value capture is a classic tool for this purpose.”
Ignacio Amigo is a former scientist who writes about science, cities, and the environment.
Photograph: The Jardim Edite housing complex, which was built on the site of a former favela with proceeds from the sale of building rights. The Octávio Frias de Oliveira Bridge is visible in the background. Credit: Nelson Kon. Project design: H+F Arquitetos, MMBB Arquitetos.
Furtado, Fernanda, Rosane Biasotto, and Camila Maleronka. 2012. “Outorga Onerosa do Direito de Construir: Coleção Cadernos Técnicos de Regulamentação e Implementação de Instrumentos” [“Onerous Grant of the Right to Build: A Collection of Technical Regulations and Implementation of Instruments”]. Brasília: Ministério das Cidades. https://urbanismo.mppr.mp.br/arquivos/File/CADERNO_TECNICO_OODC_MCIDADES.pdf.
Lacerda Júnior, Aécio Flávio de Souza. 2016. “Habitação de Interesse Social: JARDIM EDITH da favela ao conjunto residencial” [Housing of Social Interest: Jardim Edith, from Favela to Residential Complex]. Master’s thesis. São Paulo: São Judas Tadeu University. https://www.usjt.br/biblioteca/mono_disser/mono_diss/2017/368.pdf.