Topic: Land Value Taxation

¿Cómo afectan las ejecuciones hipotecarias a los valores de la propiedad y los impuestos sobre la propiedad?

James Alm, Robert D. Buschman, and David L. Sjoquist, January 1, 2014

Como consecuencia del colapso en el mercado inmobiliario y la Gran Recesión –que provocaron un aumento sustancial de ejecuciones hipotecarias residenciales y a menudo abruptas caídas de los precios de las viviendas, lo cual probablemente dio lugar a ejecuciones hipotecarias adicionales– muchos observadores especularon sobre si los gobiernos locales iban a sufrir consecuentemente pérdidas significativas en la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad. Si bien las pruebas anecdóticas sugieren que las ejecuciones hipotecarias, en especial en los lugares donde estaban espacialmente concentradas, redujeron los precios de las viviendas y los ingresos del impuesto sobre la propiedad, las investigaciones existentes no proporcionan ninguna prueba empírica que justifique esta conclusión (recuadro 1). Con datos de ejecuciones hipotecarias de la empresa RealtyTrac, que proporciona información sobre las ejecuciones hipotecarias anualespor código postal para el período de 2006 a 2011 (período que tanto precede como sucede a la Gran Recesión), este informe es el primero en examinar el impacto de las ejecuciones hipotecarias sobre los valores y la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad por parte de los gobiernos locales. Después de presentar información sobre la correlación entre ejecuciones hipotecarias y los precios de viviendas en todo el país, nos concentramos en Georgia, para explorar cómo las ejecuciones hipotecarias afectaron a los valores de la propiedad y la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad en los distritos escolares a lo largo del estado. Nuestro análisis empírico indica que, en efecto, las ejecuciones hipotecarias probablemente redujeron los valores de la propiedad y la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad. Si bien aún preliminares, estas conclusiones sugieren que las ejecuciones hipotecarias han tenido una serie de efectos sobre los sistemas fiscales de los gobiernos locales.

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Recuadro 1: Investigaciones existentes sobre el impacto de factores económicos en la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad

Si bien existen investigaciones que examinan los diversos impactos de factores económicos sobre la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad, dichos estudios usan datos que reflejan sólo una recesión previa (por ejemplo, la recesión de 2001) o cubren solamente el inicio de la crisis inmobiliaria de la Gran Recesión. Doerner e Ihlanfeldt (2010), por ejemplo, han estudiado directamente los efectos de los precios de las casas sobre los ingresos de los gobiernos locales usando datos del panel de precios detallados de las viviendas en Florida durante la década del año 2000. Concluyen que los cambios en el precio real de las viviendas unifamiliares de Florida tuvieron un efecto asimétrico sobre los ingresos gubernamentales. Los aumentos de precio no aumentan la recaudación real per cápita, pero los descensos de precio tienden a reducirla. Doerner e Ihlanfeldt también concluyen que las respuestas asimétricas se deben en gran parte a los límites impuestos sobre los aumentos y el monto del gravamen, las demoras positivas o negativas entre los cambios en los precios de mercado y la valuación tributaria, y la reducción de las tasas tributarias en respuesta a un aumento de los precios de las viviendas. Alm, Buschman y Sjoquist (2011) documentan las tendencias generales en la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad en los Estados Unidos entre 1998 y 2009 inclusive, cuando los gobiernos locales, en promedio, pudieron evitar en gran medida los impactos significativos y negativos sobre el presupuesto sufridos por el gobierno federal y los gobiernos estatales, por lo menos hasta 2009, si bien se produjeron variaciones regionales sustanciales en dichos efectos. Alm, Buschman y Sjoquist (2009) también examinan la relación entre los gastos en educación y la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad para el período entre 1990 y 2006. En un estudio relacionado, Alm y Sjoquist (2009) examinan el impacto de otros factores económicos sobre las finanzas de los distritos escolares de Georgia, como las respuestas estatales a las condiciones de los distritos escolares locales. Finalmente, Jaconetty (2011) examinó temas legales relacionados con las ejecuciones hipotecarias, y la Fundación MacArthur ha financiado un proyecto sobre ejecuciones hipotecarias en el condado de Cook, Illinois.

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Vínculos potenciales entre los precios de las viviendas, las ejecuciones hipotecarias y los valores inmobiliarios

Los gobiernos locales en los Estados Unidos dependen de varias fuentes de ingresos propios, tales como impuestos locales sobre los ingresos, sobre la propiedad y generales sobre las ventas, e impuestos específicos sobre el consumo, aranceles y cargos sobre el usuario. De éstos, la fuente de ingresos dominante es, con mucho, el impuesto sobre la propiedad. En 2011, los impuestos locales sobre la propiedad generaron aproximadamente tres cuartos de los ingresos tributarios totales de los gobiernos locales y casi la mitad de los ingresos locales totales propios (incluyendo aranceles y cargos).

Algunos impuestos locales, como los impuestos sobre el ingreso y las ventas, tienen bases tributarias que varían de acuerdo a los niveles de actividad económica, y la Gran Recesión deprimió seriamente los ingresos derivados de dichos impuestos. La base tributaria del impuesto sobre la propiedad es el valor de tasación, que no cambia automáticamente en respuesta a las condiciones económicas; a falta de un cambio formal y deliberado en la tasación, una reducción en el valor de mercado no se traduce necesariamente en una reducción del valor de tasación. Los límites de tasación, las demoras en las revaluaciones y la posibilidad de efectuar cambios deliberados en el tributo unitario o la tasa del impuesto sobre la propiedad se combinan para que las fluctuaciones económicas que influyen en los valores de las viviendas no afecten a la base tributaria del impuesto sobre la propiedad o los ingresos debido a este impuesto de manera inmediata u obvia. Con el tiempo, sin embargo, los valores de tasación tienden a reflejar los valores de mercado, y la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad puede verse afectada.

Un mercado inmobiliario debilitado –con valores de la vivienda más bajos y mayor cantidad de ejecuciones hipotecarias– puede reducir los ingresos tributarios de los gobiernos locales procedentes de distintas fuentes (Anderson, 2010; Boyd, 2010; Lutz, Molloy y Shan, 2010), como los impuestos a la transferencia inmobiliaria, los impuestos sobre las ventas de materiales de construcción de viviendas, y los impuestos sobre la renta de los trabajadores de las industrias de la construcción de viviendas y de mobiliario para el hogar. Los ingresos del impuesto sobre la propiedad suponen una proporción importante de la recaudación tributaria local, sin embargo, los cambios en la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad frecuentemente son mayores que los cambios debidos a dichos otros impuestos relacionados con las viviendas.

Actividad de ejecución hipotecaria en todo el país durante y después de la Gran Recesión

La figura 1 (pág. 26) presenta la cantidad total de ejecuciones hipotecarias a nivel de código postal de 5 dígitos como porcentaje de la cantidad de viviendas ocupadas por sus dueños en 2010. Esta figura demuestra la clara concentración geográfica de las ejecuciones hipotecarias. Arizona, California y Florida fueron afectadas especialmente por el colapso de la burbuja inmobiliaria. No obstante, otras áreas también experimentaron una actividad significativa de ejecuciones hipotecarias.

La Agencia Federal de Financiamiento de Viviendas (FHFA) produce un índice de precios de viviendas para cada área estadística metropolitana (MSA). Cotejamos los datos de ejecuciones hipotecarias de RealtyTrac con el índice de precios de viviendas de la FHFA en 352 áreas estadísticas metropolitanas. La figura 2 (pág. 26) presenta un simple diagrama de dispersión que relaciona las ejecuciones hipotecarias totales entre 2006 y 2011 como porcentaje de la cantidad de unidades de vivienda ocupadas por sus dueños en 2010, con el cambio del índice de precios de las viviendas en el período de 2007 a 2012 en las 352 áreas metropolitanas. El simple coeficiente de correlación entre las ejecuciones hipotecarias por unidades de viviendas ocupadas por sus dueños y el cambio del índice de precios de viviendas es de -0,556; si consideramos solamente aquellas MSA con ejecuciones hipotecarias no nulas a lo largo del período, el coeficiente de correlación es de -0,739. Este simple análisis sugiere que las ejecuciones hipotecarias tienen una correlación negativa significativa con los valores de la vivienda. El próximo paso es explorar el efecto de las ejecuciones hipotecarias sobre la base tributaria del impuesto sobre la propiedad y sobre la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad propiamente dicho. En la próxima sección examinaremos este tema para el estado de Georgia.

Análisis más detallado: Ejecuciones hipotecarias, valores de la propiedad e ingresos del impuesto sobre la propiedad en Georgia

Al examinar el efecto de las ejecuciones hipotecarias sobre los valores de la propiedad y la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad en un solo estado, eliminamos la necesidad de controlar las muchas maneras en que los factores institucionales pueden diferir entre estados. Georgia es un lugar adecuado para concentrarse porque de alguna manera es un estado “promedio”. Por ejemplo, los gobiernos locales de Georgia dependen del impuesto sobre la propiedad sólo un poco menos que el promedio nacional; en 2008, los ingresos del impuesto sobre la propiedad como porcentaje de los impuestos totales de los gobiernos locales fue del 65,1 por ciento en Georgia, en comparación con el 72,3 por ciento en los Estados Unidos en general. (Bourdeaux y Jun 2011).

Medimos la actividad de ejecución hipotecaria con datos de RealtyTrac, agregando las observaciones por código postal en los condados correspondientes. El Departamento de Ingresos de Georgia suministró la base tributaria anual del impuesto sobre la propiedad (que en Georgia se denomina “resumen neto”) y las tasas del impuesto sobre la propiedad. Los ingresos del impuesto sobre la propiedad y los ingresos locales totales de los distritos escolares fueron suministrados por el Departamento de Educación de Georgia. La base tributaria corresponde al 1 de enero del año respectivo. La tasa del impuesto sobre la propiedad se determina en la primavera, las facturas del impuesto se pagan en el otoño, y su recaudación se reporta en el siguiente año fiscal. Los distritos escolares tienen un año fiscal que va del 1 de julio al 30 de junio, de manera que la base tributaria y las tasas unitarias de 2009, por ejemplo, aparecerían en los ingresos del año fiscal 2010. También usamos varios datos demográficos y económicos (ingresos, empleo y población) medidos a nivel de condado para ayudar a explicar los cambios en la base tributaria. Debido a que estas variables se reportan a nivel de condado, para el análisis siguiente agregamos las variables de base tributaria del impuesto sobre la propiedad y su recaudación en los distritos escolares urbanos a los sistemas escolares de condado correspondientes a dichas ciudades para obtener los totales para los 159 condados. Para condados que incluyen todo o parte de un sistema escolar urbano, la tasa tributaria es el promedio de las tasas tributarias escolares del condado y la ciudad, ponderadas por sus bases tributarias respectivas.

En Georgia, las tasaciones de las propiedades con fines tributarios son responsabilidad exclusiva de los gobiernos de condado, pero el estado evalúa todas las bases tributarias del impuesto sobre la propiedad anualmente, comparando ventas reales de parcelas mejoradas durante el año con los valores de tasación, y determina si el nivel de tasación es apropiado con relación al valor justo de mercado, que se fija legalmente en el 40 por ciento. Los “estudios de razón de ventas” resultantes reportan una cifra de base tributaria del impuesto sobre la propiedad ajustada al 100 por cien para cada distrito escolar del estado, junto con una razón calculada. Podemos usar estas bases tributarias ajustadas del impuesto sobre la propiedad, cubriendo los períodos de 2000 a 2011 inclusive, para medir el valor de mercado de la propiedad residencial.

Georgia tiene muy pocas limitaciones institucionales al impuesto sobre la propiedad. Las juntas de distritos escolares pueden fijar generalmente sus tasas del impuesto sobre la propiedad sin aprobación de los votantes, la cual solamente es necesaria si la tasa del impuesto sobre la propiedad en un distrito escolar de condado excede de 20 milésimas del valor de tasación. En la actualidad, solamente cinco sistemas escolares han alcanzado este límite. Además, no hay un límite general en el valor de tasación, si bien un condado ha congelado las tasaciones sobre bienes de familia. En 2009, el estado de Georgia impuso una congelación temporal sobre las tasaciones en todo el estado, que potencialmente afectaba a los ingresos del impuesto sobre la propiedad sólo en el año académico/año fiscal 2010; sin embargo, al disminuir las bases netas y ajustadas del impuesto sobre la propiedad per cápita en la mayoría de los condados de 2009 a 2011 inclusive, es poco probable que esta congelación haya recortado las tasaciones.

Ejecuciones hipotecarias

La tabla 1 muestra la media y mediana de ejecuciones hipotecarias en todo el estado por código postal entre 2006 y 2011 inclusive. La cantidad total de ejecuciones hipotecarias casi se duplicó de 2006 a 2010, disminuyendo en 2011. La media de ejecuciones hipotecarias es mucho mayor que la mediana, lo cual es señal de que la distribución es extremadamente asimétrica.

La tabla 2 muestra la distribución de los códigos postales de Georgia por la cantidad de años que el código postal tuvo alguna ejecución hipotecaria. Más del 65 por ciento de los códigos postales tuvieron ejecuciones hipotecarias en cada uno de los seis años, mientras que sólo el 7 por ciento no tuvo ninguna ejecución hipotecaria en ninguno de los seis años. Esta distribución sugiere que sólo una porción muy pequeña del estado quedó inmune a la crisis de ejecuciones hipotecarias.

La figura 3 (pág. 27) muestra la distribución de ejecuciones hipotecarias en el estado durante el período de 2006 a 2011 inclusive. Como los códigos postales difieren en tamaño y densidad de viviendas, también se muestra un mapa de las ejecuciones hipotecarias por unidades de vivienda ocupadas por sus dueños en 2010 en la figura 4 (pág. 28). Nótese que los códigos postales marcados en blanco no tienen ninguna ejecución hipotecaria o no se tienen datos de ejecuciones hipotecarias. Como era de esperar, los condados urbanos y suburbanos (particularmente en el área metropolitana de Atlanta) sufrieron la mayor cantidad de ejecuciones hipotecarias. No obstante, hay también una gran cantidad de ejecuciones hipotecarias en muchos de los códigos postales menos urbanos.

La figura 5 muestra la distribución anual de ejecuciones hipotecarias por cada cien unidades de vivienda en cada uno de los 159 condados de Georgia. Nótese que la barra del recuadro representa el valor medio, el recuadro captura las observaciones en el segundo y tercer cuartil, los “bigotes” representan 1,5 veces la diferencia entre los porcentiles veinticinco y setenta y cinco, y los puntos son los valores extremos. La mediana de ejecuciones hipotecarias por condado aumentó de 0,17 por 100 unidades de vivienda en 2006 a 1,18 por 100 unidades en 2010, un aumento en la mediana de más de seis veces. Hay una alta correlación positiva entre la actividad de ejecuciones hipotecarias en 2006 y 2011 en todos los condados. Esta correlación es de 0,78 cuando se mide en relación a las unidades de vivienda y 0,74 cuando se mide per cápita, lo que indica que los condados con actividad de ejecución hipotecaria mayor (menor) que el promedio antes de la crisis inmobiliaria siguiron estando por arriba (abajo) del promedio en su pico.

Valores de la propiedad,/b>

En cuanto a los cambios en los valores de la propiedad, las figuras 6 y 7 muestran la distribución de cambios anuales, respectivamente, en la base tributaria neta del impuesto sobre la propiedad per cápita y en la base tributaria 100 por ciento ajustada del impuesto sobre la propiedad per cápita en los 159 condados entre 2001 y 2011 inclusive. Los estudios sugieren que las ejecuciones hipotecarias pueden tener un efecto de contagio sobre los valores de mercado de otras propiedades en la jurisdicción (Frame, 2010). Intentamos estimar el efecto de las ejecuciones hipotecarias sobre los valores de mercado en función de la base tributaria 100 por ciento ajustada del impuesto sobre la propiedad.

Nuestros resultados son preliminares, porque el análisis solamente incluye datos de Georgia. Aun así, sugieren significativos efectos negativos de las ejecuciones hipotecarias sobre los valores de la propiedad, controlando por los cambios porcentuales de año a año en ingresos, empleo y población. Las estimaciones de coeficientes de la variable ‘ejecuciones hipotecarias’ sugieren que un aumento marginal de una ejecución hipotecaria por cada 100 viviendas (o aproximadamente el aumento en la mediana de ejecuciones hipotecarias de 2006 a 2011) está asociado con aproximadamente una disminución del 3 por ciento en la base tributaria 100 por ciento ajustada del impuesto sobre la propiedad en cada uno de los dos años subsiguientes. De igual manera, un aumento de una ejecución hipotecaria por cada 1.000 habitantes está asociado con casi el 1 por ciento de disminución en la base tributaria 100 por ciento ajustada del impuesto sobre la propiedad después de un año, y una disminución porcentual ligeramente menor en el año subsiguiente.

Ingresos del impuesto sobre la propiedad

También exploramos el efecto de las ejecuciones hipotecarias sobre la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad. La figura 8 representa la distribución de cambios nominales por condado de los ingresos totales de mantenimiento y operaciones del impuesto sobre la propiedad desde 2001, que muestra una variación considerable de un sistema escolar a otro en los cambios anuales de recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad. Aun en los últimos tres años de disminución de los valores de la propiedad, por lo menos la mitad de los condados tuvo un crecimiento nominal positivo anual en la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad. Para comprender el efecto de la actividad de ejecución hipotecaria sobre los ingresos del gobierno local por impuestos sobre la propiedad, estimamos las regresiones que relacionan las ejecuciones hipotecarias con los gravámenes del impuesto sobre la propiedad y la recaudación de dicho impuesto.

Encontramos que un aumento en las ejecuciones hipotecarias está asociado a una reducción en el monto del gravamen, después de controlar por los cambios en la base tributaria del impuesto sobre la propiedad como también en las fluctuaciones de ingresos, empleo y población. Un aumento de una ejecución hipotecaria por cada 100 unidades de vivienda se asocia con alrededor del 1,5 por ciento de disminución subsiguiente en el gravamen, manteniendo constante el resto de las variables. También encontramos que las ejecuciones hipotecarias tienen un impacto negativo sobre la recaudación, manteniendo constante el resto de las variables. Como en nuestras estimaciones anteriores, estos resultados son para Georgia solamente, pero identifican una relación negativa significativa entre las ejecuciones hipotecarias y los gravámenes y la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad por parte de los gobiernos locales. Puede ser que una mayor actividad de ejecución hipotecaria haga vacilar a las autoridades locales sobre la posibilidad de aumentar las tasas tributarias para compensar el efecto de las ejecuciones hipotecarias sobre la base tributaria.

Conclusiones

¿Las ejecuciones hipotecarias causadas por la Gran Recesión afectaron a los valores de la propiedad y la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad por parte de los gobiernos locales? Nuestros resultados sugieren que las ejecuciones hipotecarias han tenido un impacto negativo significativo sobre los valores de la propiedad y, por esta vía, un efecto similar sobre la recaudación del impuesto sobre la propiedad, por lo menos en el estado de Georgia. Nuestros resultados también sugieren la presencia de efectos adicionales sobre los gravámenes y la recaudación de dicho impuesto, después de controlar por los cambios en la base tributaria. Hacen falta más investigaciones para saber si estos resultados se extienden a otros estados.

Sobre los autores

James Alm es profesor y director del Departamento de Economía de Tulane University.

Robert D. Buschman es asociado de investigación senior en el Centro de Investigaciones Fiscales de la Escuela Andrew Young de Estudios Políticos de la Universidad Estatal de Georgia.

David L. Sjoquist es profesor y titular de la cátedra Dan E. Sweat en Política Educativa y Comunitaria en la Escuela Andrew Young de Estudios Políticos.

Recursos

Alm, James y David L. Sjoquist. 2009. The Response of Local School Systems in Georgia to Fiscal and Economic Conditions. Journal of Education Finance 35(1): 60–84.

Alm, James, Robert D. Buschman, y David L. Sjoquist. 2009. Economic Conditions and State and Local Education Revenue. Public Budgeting & Finance 29(3): 28–51.

Alm, James, Robert D. Buschman, y David L. Sjoquist. 2011. Rethinking Local Government Reliance on the Property Tax. Regional Science and Urban Economics 41(4): 320–331.

Anderson, John E. 2010. Shocks to the Property Tax Base and Implications for Local Public Finance. Paper presented at the Urban Institute-Brookings Institution Tax Policy Center and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Conference, “Effects of the Housing Crisis on State and Local Governments,” Washington, D.C. (Mayo).

Bourdeaux, Carolyn y Sungman Jun. 2011. Comparing Georgia’s Revenue Portfolio to Regional and National Peers. Report No. 222. Atlanta, GA: Fiscal Research Center, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University.

Boyd, Donald J. 2010. Recession, Recovery, and State and Local Finances. Paper presented at the Urban Institute-Brookings Institution Tax Policy Center and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Conference, “Effects of the Housing Crisis on State and Local Governments,” Washington, D.C. (Mayo).

Doerner, William M. y Keith R. Ihlanfeldt. 2010. House Prices and Local Government Revenues. Paper presented at the Urban Institute-Brookings Institution Tax Policy Center and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Conference, “Effects of the Housing Crisis on State and Local Governments,” Washington, D.C. (Mayo).

Frame, W. Scott. 2010. Estimating the Effect of Mortgage Foreclosures on Nearby Property Values: A Critical Review of the Literature. Economic Review 95(3): 1–9.

Jaconetty, Thomas A. 2011. How Do Foreclosures Affect Real Property Tax Valuation? And What Can We Do About It? Working paper presented at National Conference of State Tax Judges, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Cambridge, MA (Septiembre).

Lutz, Byron, Raven Molloy, y Hui Shan. 2010. The Housing Crisis and State and Local Government Tax Revenue: Five Channels. Paper presented at the Urban Institute-Brookings Institution Tax Policy Center and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Conference, “Effects of the Housing Crisis on State and Local Governments,” Washington, DC (Mayo).

Prospects for Land Value Taxation in Britain

Tony Vickers, January 1, 2003

It is not surprising that proposals for land value taxation (LVT) should elicit strong reactions in public debate. Land, taxes and information are a combustible combination, but they are critical to our political system. Without land we cannot live; without taxes we cannot be governed; without information about land and taxes we are powerless to change the way we are governed. Although Britain has not confronted basic land or tax reform in recent years, there are several signs, outlined below, that this is changing, and such changes can open the way for renewed attention to LVT initiatives.

Increasing Awareness of the Tax Burden

There is now widespread acceptance that Britain taxes jobs and enterprise far too much. In 1997 the European Commission (now known as the European Union) asked its 15 member states to produce employment action plans, including proposals to relieve the burden of taxes on employment. In 1999 British Prime Minister Tony Blair and German Chancellor Gerhardt Schroeder issued a joint statement that said, “. . . overall, the taxation of hard work and enterprise should be reduced.” Britain’s Liberal Democrat Party manifesto in 1998 called for a “major tax shift off people and on to pollution and resources.” Across the political spectrum consensus is building for a shift in the tax burden.

Devolution and Constitutional Reform

The United Kingdom is in the midst of far-reaching constitutional changes involving elections by proportional representation, which almost guarantee coalitions and make continuity of policy more likely. The number of voting hereditary peers in the House of (Land) Lords has been reduced from 400 to fewer than 100. Unlike a century ago, the Lords can no longer block an elected government with a mandate to introduce LVT or other land reforms. Although Britain still has one of the most centralized governments in Europe, Scotland and Wales now have considerable autonomy through their elected Parliament and Assembly.

Northern Ireland also has an elected Assembly, and land policy there is arguably more forward-thinking than on mainland Britain, with integrated ministerial responsibility for maps, land registers and property valuation. By 2007 there will be a fully electronic, map-based comprehensive land register and up-to-date property assessment. Uniquely in the UK, residential areas will be assessed through computer-aided mass assessment (CAMA) techniques imported from the U.S.

Scotland can vary income tax by up to 3 percent and can choose the tax base for its 28 local authorities. There is a much better understanding of LVT in Scotland than elsewhere in the UK, and the Scottish Executive has promised to initiate a thorough study of the economic implications of LVT before the next elections in 2004.

London now has its own devolved regional government, the Greater London Assembly, with an elected mayor, Ken Livingstone, who has become keenly interested in the potential of land values to fund transport infrastructure. The mayor’s transport commissioner, American Bob Kiley, is even more interested and has gone on record saying LVT might have a role, and not just in transport funding. There is currently a lively political battle concerning the London Underground, addressing who pays for investment and who benefits from it, which may provide a context for considering the role of LVT.

In most of the UK, however, local government is still a creature of the central state. Seventy percent of local government revenue comes directly from central grants, and over 90 percent of local expenditure is constrained by directives from the central government.

Advances in Geographic Information Technology

There have been amazing changes in information technology since the last thorough review of local government finance in Britain, in 1975. Then, base map information was held on a quarter of a million glass plates that were only revised on a 10- to 25-year cycle, using manual cartography, steel tapes and parchment paper. Now the entire national mapping system is computerized, using satellites, hand-held field data recorders and Internet map access. The Ordnance Survey MasterMap data structure recognizes land and building parcels and can hold attributes as diverse as height, material of construction, value and ownership. It is updated on a continuous basis and can incorporate pre-build and historic information. In 1975 the map archive occupied a large four-story building; now it fits on just eight CD-ROMs, covering every building and land parcel occupied by 60 million people.

All of these advances could assist the introduction of a tax based on land value, although there are serious institutional problems in getting all agencies that would be involved in LVT to apply the technology fast enough. However, the government has a target of enabling all information-based functions to be delivered electronically by 2005.

Unpopularity of the Uniform Business Rate

The uniformity of taxation in Britain is reflected in the name of the nonresidential property tax: Uniform Business Rate (UBR). At the end of the 1980s, local councils lost the power to fix the rate of the tax, and with it any direct financial connection with their local business communities. The central government at Whitehall decides what each council will collect from its business ratepayers, and how much each council retains, which can be substantially more or less than is collected locally. All that remains is some discretion over businesses exemptions, at the expense of local residents. No wonder that a recent government study showed a deep disdain for local councils among business owners and huge ignorance by both business and councils about their respective roles and problems.

Because this tax is based on occupancy and not on ownership, vacant and underused land largely or wholly escapes taxation. The UBR is regarded as a most regressive tax, accounting for up to one-third of the turnover of the smallest independent traders but only 3 percent of turnover of large multiple stores. My research has found UBR to be extremely unpopular: it penalizes success and fails to compensate for harm done by irresponsible neighbors. So this is another factor in the return of interest in LVT. As others have noted in recent years, the replacement of UBR, in part or totally, with a site-value-based tax would most likely be an extremely effective policy for urban renewal.

Business Improvement Districts

BIDs are coming to Britain after years of use in the U.S. These special districts allow commercial and office sectors to raise funds through property assessments for maintenance and improvement of their neighborhoods. But the only tax currently proposed for BIDs is a supplement to the occupier-based UBR. The business community does not like this idea, and LVT campaigners are now working with others to persuade prospective BID partnerships to consider assessments on owners and also to press for the creation of new tax powers.

LVT supporters propose that if a large majority within the BID support such measures, the BID should be able to compel all owners in the district to pay them; free-riders should not be allowed. The idea, known as “Smart BIDs,” is to support the BIDs with taxes on owners rather than business rates, and perhaps even to reduce the UBR rate within Smart BIDs.

Environmental Concerns

Current interest in LVT in Britain was boosted by an Urban Task Force report and formal support for LVT pilot projects by Friends of the Earth (which has more members in the UK than the Liberal Democrat Party) and the Town & Country Planning Association. These environmental organizations are interested in taxation as a tool for sustainable development, and such concern will only grow in the future. People in Britain will recycle even if it costs them time and money to do so. The same concern for the environment will increase acceptance of LVT when it is understood as a means of keeping towns and cities viable and protecting the countryside.

Practical Administrative Considerations

Two surveys of the town of Whitstable by Hector Wilks in 1963 and 1973 support the view that LVT presents fewer assessment difficulties than do traditional rating systems. Recent advances in computerized assessment systems make LVT more feasible than ever before. My own preliminary studies of other countries that use computerized assessments, especially Denmark and Australia, show that the overall cost of property tax administration is far lower there.

Denmark’s property tax, with annual revaluations, costs 20 percent less per property than Britain’s. When I visited Denmark last year, I found an extremely efficient property tax system tapping into land values in a modest way. Tax administrators told me that, aside from the environmental benefits of the tax, the greatest interest came from Treasury officials concerned about the growth of offshore tax havens. They are attracted to LVT because it costs very little to administer and there is virtually no possibility of avoidance or evasion.

If a British government were inclined to switch to LVT, it would not find any insuperable problems within our highly intelligent and incorruptible valuation profession. We have a professional, politically independent agency for conducting property tax assessments and the best national mapping agency in the world. It is simply a matter of exercising political leadership.

The Way Forward

In addition to supporting Smart BID pilot projects, my personal list for projects to help realize the potential of LVT includes:

  • updating basic economics courses and making them available on the Web;
  • implementing exchange programs between relevant tax professionals in Britain and countries with LVT;
  • developing easy-to-use value mapping tools;
  • studying the links between planning and LVT;
  • comparing compliance costs of LVT and other taxes;
  • developing indicators of the economic impact of LVT;
  • monitoring public perceptions of land and tax issues over time and across countries; and
  • providing more accessible nontechnical publications about LVT. These are.

The subject of tax reform is one of the most important issues of our age and political environment, and after years of neglect LVT is being considered in Britain again. The Lincoln Institute’s sponsorship of work by many LVT thinkers, writers and researchers in Britain and elsewhere has been instrumental in advancing public awareness of and professional appreciation for the potential benefits of LVT.

Tony Vickers recently completed a David C. Lincoln Fellowship in Land Value Taxation at the Lincoln Institute, and this article summarizes his Founder’s Day lecture on the topic in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in June 2002. Vickers is the former CEO of the Henry George Foundation in London, and he is currently pursuing a Ph.D. at the School of Surveying, Kingston University, London.

How Do Foreclosures Affect Property Values and Property Taxes?

James Alm, Robert D. Buschman, and David L. Sjoquist, January 1, 2014

In the wake of the housing market collapse and the Great Recession—which caused a substantial increase in residential foreclosures and often precipitous declines in home prices that likely led to additional foreclosures—many observers speculated that local governments would consequently suffer significant property tax revenue losses. While anecdotal evidence suggests that foreclosures, especially when spatially concentrated, lowered housing prices and property tax revenue, the existing body of research provides no empirical evidence to support this conclusion (box 1). Drawing on proprietary foreclosure data from RealtyTrac—which provides annual foreclosures by zip code for the period 2006 through 2011 (a period that both precedes and follows the Great Recession)—this report is the first to examine the impacts of foreclosures on local government property tax values and revenues. After presenting information on the correlation between foreclosures and housing prices nationwide, we shift focus to Georgia in order to explore how foreclosures affected property values and property tax revenue across school districts throughout the state. Our empirical analysis indicates that, indeed, foreclosures likely diminished property values and property tax revenues. While still preliminary, these findings suggest that foreclosures had a range of effects on the fiscal systems of local governments.

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Box 1: Existing Research into the Impacts of Economic Factors on Property Tax Revenues

While there is existing research examining the various impacts of economic factors on property tax revenues, these studies use data that reflect only a previous recession (e.g., the 2001 recession) or that cover only the very start of the housing crisis in the Great Recession. Doerner and Ihlanfeldt (2010), for example, focus directly on the effects of house prices on local government revenues, using detailed panel data on Florida home prices during the 2000s. They conclude that changes in the real price of Florida single-family housing had an asymmetric effect on government revenues. Price increases do not raise real per capita revenues, but price decreases tend to dampen them. Doerner and Ihlanfeldt also find that asymmetric responses are due largely to caps on assessment increases, positive or negative lags between changes in market prices and assessed values, and decreased millage rates in response to increased home prices. Alm, Buschman, and Sjoquist (2011) document the overall trends in property tax revenues in the United States from 1998 through 2009—when local governments, on average, were largely able to avoid the significant and negative budgetary impacts sustained by state and federal governments, at least through 2009, although there was substantial regional variation in these effects. Alm, Buschman, and Sjoquist (2009) also examine the relation between education expenditures and property tax revenues for the 1990 to 2006 period. In related work, Alm and Sjoquist (2009) examine the impact of other economic factors on Georgia school district finances such as state responses to local school district conditions. Finally, Jaconetty (2011) examined the legal issues surrounding foreclosures, and the MacArthur Foundation has funded a project on foreclosures in Cook County, Illinois.

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Potential Links between Housing Prices, Foreclosures, and Property Values

Local governments in the United States rely on various own-source revenues, including local income, property, and general sales taxes and specific excise taxes, fees, and user charges. Of these, the dominant source is by far the property tax. In 2011, local property taxes accounted for roughly three-fourths of total local government tax revenues and for nearly one-half of total local own-source revenues (including fees and charges).

Some local taxes, such as income and sales taxes, have bases that vary closely with the levels of economic activity, and the Great Recession seriously depressed revenues from such taxes. The basis of the property tax is assessed value, which does not automatically change in response to economic conditions; in the absence of a formal and deliberate change in assessment, a decrease in the market value does not necessarily translate into a decrease in assessed value. Assessment caps, lags in reassessments, and the ability to make deliberate changes in millage or property tax rates combine so that economic fluctuations that influence housing values may not affect the property tax base or property tax revenues in any immediate or obvious way. Over time, however, assessed values tend to reflect market values, and property tax revenues also come under pressure.

A weakened housing market—with lower housing values and more foreclosures—may reduce local government tax revenues from several sources (Anderson, 2010; Boyd, 2010; Lutz, Molloy, and Shan, 2010), including real estate transfer taxes, sales taxes on home construction materials, and income taxes from workers in the housing construction and home furnishings industries. Because property tax revenues are such a large share of local tax revenue, however, changes in property tax revenues are often larger than the changes from these other housing-related taxes.

Foreclosure Activities Nationwide During and After the Great Recession

Figure 1 (p. 24) presents the total nationwide numbers of foreclosures at the 5-digit zip code level as a share of the number of owner-occupied homes in 2010. This figure demonstrates the clear geographic concentration of foreclosures. Arizona, California, and Florida were especially hard hit by the collapse of the housing bubble. However, other areas also experienced significant foreclosure activity.

The Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA) produces a housing price index for each metropolitan statistical area (MSA). We matched the RealtyTrac foreclosure data to the FHFA housing price index for 352 metropolitan statistical areas. Figure 2 (p. 24) presents a simple scatterplot that relates total foreclosures over the years 2006 to 2011 as a share of the number of owner-occupied housing units in 2010, to the change in the housing price index over the period 2007 to 2012 for all 352 metropolitan areas. The simple correlation coefficient between foreclosures per owner-occupied housing units and the change in housing price index is -0.556; if we consider only those MSAs with non-zero foreclosures over the period, the correlation coefficient is -0.739. This simple analysis suggests that foreclosures have a significant negative relation with housing values. The next step is to explore the effect of foreclosures on the property tax base and on property tax revenues. In the next section, we examine this issue for the state of Georgia.

More Detailed Analysis: Foreclosures, Property Values, and Property Tax Revenues in Georgia

By examining the effect of foreclosures on property values and property tax revenues in a single state, we eliminated the need to control for the many ways in which institutional factors may differ across states. Georgia is a suitable focal point because in many ways it is roughly an “average” state. For example, local governments in Georgia rely on property taxes only slightly less than the national average; in 2008, property tax revenue as a share of total taxes for local governments was 65.1 percent in Georgia compared to 72.3 percent of the U.S. (Bourdeaux and Jun 2011).

We measure foreclosure activity with the Realty-Trac data, aggregating zip code observations into the corresponding counties. The Georgia Department of Revenue supplied the annual property tax base (referred to as “net digest” in Georgia) and property tax rates. Property tax and total local source revenues for school districts came from the Georgia Department of Education. The tax base is as of January 1 of the respective year. The property tax rate is set in the spring with tax bills being paid in the fall, the revenue from which would be reported in the following fiscal year. School districts are on a July 1 to June 30 fiscal year, so the 2009 tax base and millage rates, for example, would be reflected in revenues for fiscal year 2010. We also use various demographic and economic data (income, employment, and population) measured at the county level to help explain changes in the base. Because these variables are at a county level, for the analysis that follows, we added the property tax base and revenue variables for city school districts to those for the county school systems in each city’s county to obtain countywide totals for 159 counties. For counties that include all or part of a city school system, the tax rate is the average of the county and city school tax rates, weighted by the respective property tax base.

Only county governments conduct property tax assessment in Georgia, but the state evaluates all property tax bases annually, comparing actual sales of improved parcels during the year to assessed values, and determining if the assessment level is appropriate relative to fair market value, which is legally set at 40 percent. The resulting “sales ratio studies” report an adjusted 100 percent property tax base figure for each school district in the state, along with the calculated ratio. We use these adjusted property tax bases, covering the periods 2000 through 2011, to measure the market value of residential property.

Georgia has very few institutional property tax limitations. School district boards can generally set their property tax rates without voter approval, which is required only if the property tax rate for a county school district exceeds 20 mills. Currently, the cap is binding on only five school systems. Also, there is no general assessment limitation, although one county has an assessment freeze on homesteaded property. In 2009, the State of Georgia imposed a temporary freeze on assessments across the state, potentially affecting property tax revenue only in school year/fiscal year 2010; however, with net and adjusted property tax bases declining on a per capita basis for most counties in 2009 through 2011, it is unlikely that the freeze has constrained assessments.

Foreclosures

Table 1 provides the statewide mean and median number of foreclosures by zip code for 2006 through 2011. Total foreclosures almost doubled between 2006 and 2010, before declining in 2011. The mean number of foreclosures is much larger than the median, implying that the distribution is highly skewed.

Table 2 shows the distribution of Georgia zip codes by the number of years that the zip code had non-zero foreclosures. Over 65 percent of the zip codes had foreclosures in each of the six years, while only 7 percent had no foreclosures in all six years. This distribution suggests that very little of the state was immune to the foreclosure crisis.

Figure 3 (p. 25) shows the distribution of foreclosures across the state over the period 2006 through 2011. Because zip codes differ in size and housing density, we also map the number of foreclosures per owner-occupied housing units for 2010 in figure 4 (p. 25). Note that zip codes marked in white either have no foreclosures or are missing foreclosure data. As one would expect, urban and suburban counties (particularly in the Atlanta metropolitan area) have the most foreclosures. However, there are large numbers of foreclosures in many of the less urban zip codes as well.

Figure 5 shows the annual distribution of foreclosures per hundred housing units in each of Georgia’s 159 counties. Note that the bar in the box represents the median value, the box captures the observations in the second and third quartile, the “whiskers” equal 1.5 times the difference between the twenty-fifth and seventy-fifth percentiles, and the dots are extreme values. The median number of foreclosures by county increased from 0.17 per 100 housing units in 2006 to 1.18 per 100 units in 2010—more than a sixfold increase in the median. There is a high positive correlation between foreclosure activity in 2006 and 2011 across the counties. This correlation is 0.78 when measured relative to housing units and 0.74 when measured on a per capita basis, indicating that counties with above (below) average foreclosure activity before the housing crisis remained above (below) average at its peak.

Property Values

As for changes in property values, figures 6 and 7 show the distributions of annual changes, respectively, in the per capita net property tax base and in the per capita adjusted 100 percent property tax base across the 159 counties from 2001 through 2011. Studies suggest that foreclosures may have spillover effects on the market values of other properties in the jurisdiction (Frame, 2010). We attempt to estimate the effect of foreclosures on market values as measured by the adjusted 100 percent property tax base.

Our results are preliminary, in that the analysis included only Georgia data. Even so, they suggest significant negative effects of foreclosures on property values, controlling for year-to-year percent changes in income, employment, and population. The coefficient estimates on the foreclosures variable suggest that a marginal increase of one foreclosure per 100 homes (or approximately the increase in median foreclosures from 2006 to 2011) is associated with a roughly 3 percent decline in the adjusted 100 percent property tax base over each of the two following years. Similarly, an increase of one foreclosure per 1,000 population is associated with nearly a 1 percent decline in the adjusted 100 percent property tax base after one year, and a slightly lower percent decline in the following year.

Property Tax Revenues

We also explore the effect of foreclosures on property tax revenues. Figure 8 (p. 27) depicts the distribution of nominal changes by county in total maintenance and operations property tax revenues since 2001, showing considerable variation across the school systems in the annual changes in property tax revenues. Even in the latest three years of declining property values, at least half the counties annually realized positive nominal growth in property tax revenue. To understand the effect of foreclosure activity on local government property revenues, we estimate regressions that relate foreclosures to property tax levies and to actual property tax revenues.

We find that a rise in foreclosures is associated with a reduction in the levy, after controlling for changes in the property tax base as well as fluctuations in income, employment, and population. An increase of one foreclosure per 100 housing units is associated with about a 1.5 percent subsequent decline in the levy, all else held constant. We also find that foreclosures have a negative impact on revenues, all else constant. Like our earlier estimates, these results are for Georgia only, but they indicate a significant negative relationship between foreclosures and local government property tax levies and revenues. It may be that higher foreclosure activity makes local officials hesitant to raise property tax rates to offset the effect of foreclosures on the tax base.

Conclusions

How have foreclosures driven by the Great Recession affected property values and property tax revenues of local governments? Our results suggest that foreclosures have had a significant negative impact on property values, and, through this channel, a similar effect on property tax revenues, at least in the state of Georgia. Our results also suggest additional effects on levies and revenues after controlling for changes in the tax base. Further work is required to see whether these results extend to other states.

About the Authors

James Alm is a professor and chair of the department of economics at Tulane University.

Robert D. Buschman is a senior research associate with the Fiscal Research Center in the Andrew Young School of Policy Studies at Georgia State University.

David L. Sjoquist is a professor and holder of the Dan E. Sweat Chair in Educational and Community Policy in the Andrew Young School of Policy Studies.

Resources

Alm, James and David L. Sjoquist. 2009. The Response of Local School Systems in Georgia to Fiscal and Economic Conditions. Journal of Education Finance 35(1): 60–84.

Alm, James, Robert D. Buschman, and David L. Sjoquist. 2009. Economic Conditions and State and Local Education Revenue. Public Budgeting & Finance 29(3): 28–51.

Alm, James, Robert D. Buschman, and David L. Sjoquist. 2011. Rethinking Local Government Reliance on the Property Tax. Regional Science and Urban Economics 41(4): 320–331.

Anderson, John E. 2010. Shocks to the Property Tax Base and Implications for Local Public Finance. Paper presented at the Urban Institute-Brookings Institution Tax Policy Center and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Conference, “Effects of the Housing Crisis on State and Local Governments,” Washington, D.C. (May).

Bourdeaux, Carolyn and Sungman Jun. 2011. Comparing Georgia’s Revenue Portfolio to Regional and National Peers. Report No. 222. Atlanta, GA: Fiscal Research Center, Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University.

Boyd, Donald J. 2010. Recession, Recovery, and State and Local Finances. Paper presented at the Urban Institute-Brookings Institution Tax Policy Center and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Conference, “Effects of the Housing Crisis on State and Local Governments,” Washington, D.C. (May).

Doerner, William M. and Keith R. Ihlanfeldt. 2010. House Prices and Local Government Revenues. Paper presented at the Urban Institute-Brookings Institution Tax Policy Center and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Conference, “Effects of the Housing Crisis on State and Local Governments,” Washington, D.C. (May).

Frame, W. Scott. 2010. Estimating the Effect of Mortgage Foreclosures on Nearby Property Values: A Critical Review of the Literature. Economic Review 95(3): 1–9.

Jaconetty, Thomas A. 2011. How Do Foreclosures Affect Real Property Tax Valuation? And What Can We Do About It?” Working paper presented at National Conference of State Tax Judges, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Cambridge, MA (September).

Lutz, Byron, Raven Molloy, and Hui Shan. 2010. The Housing Crisis and State and Local Government Tax Revenue: Five Channels. Paper presented at the Urban Institute-Brookings Institution Tax Policy Center and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Conference, “Effects of the Housing Crisis on State and Local Governments,” Washington, DC (May).

Graduate Student Fellowships

2019 C. Lowell Harriss Dissertation Fellowship Program

Submission Deadline: March 1, 2019 at 6:00 PM

The Lincoln Institute's C. Lowell Harriss Dissertation Fellowship Program assists Ph.D. students, primarily at U.S. universities, whose research complements the Institute's interests in land and tax policy. The program provides an important link between the Institute's educational mission and its research objectives by supporting scholars early in their careers.

For information on present and previous fellowship recipients and projects, please visit C. Lowell Harriss Dissertation Fellows, Current and Past


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March 1, 2019 at 6:00 PM

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Fellowships

2019 Lincoln Institute Scholars Program

Submission Deadline: September 30, 2019 at 11:59 PM

The Department of Valuation and Taxation hosts a program in which recent PhDs specializing in public finance or urban economics have an opportunity to work with senior economists.

For information on previous Lincoln Scholars, please visit Lincoln Scholars Program Alumni


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Submission Deadline
September 30, 2019 at 11:59 PM

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