Local governments are still learning what the COVID-19 crisis will mean for their revenues over the next year. In large part, the answer will depend on what part of the economy they rely on for their tax revenue.

Some are already grappling with grim news. In Kansas City, Missouri, council members are looking at budget cuts totalling $300 million over the next six years. In March, they approved a $1.7 billion budget that included a hiring freeze and reductions in travel, but noted they’ll likely have to face more difficult choices in the months ahead.

Meanwhile, more than 1,400 miles away in Boston, Mayor Marty Walsh has proposed a $3.65 billion budget for the next fiscal year. It’s a 4.4 percent spending boost over the current year that includes increased funding for education, housing, and public health.

It’s not that Boston is facing a vastly lower public health or economic impact from the COVID-19 virus. In fact, it has had notably more COVID-19 cases than Kansas City, both in number and as a share of the population. Instead, the difference lies in where each city gets most of its tax revenue.

In Boston, proceeds from the property tax make up 72 percent of general fund revenue. In Kansas City, however, property tax revenue accounts for less than 12 percent of general fund revenue. Instead, the city relies on more economically sensitive income streams: a local wage tax (44 percent of revenues) and the sales tax (20 percent of revenues). With the near-halting of economic activity this spring, the city is expecting an estimated $30 million–or 4 percent of general fund–revenue shortfall in the current fiscal year, which ended April 30, according to Fitch Ratings. That’s mainly due to Kansas City extending its earning-tax payment deadline; officials hope to recoup most of that in the 2021 fiscal year.

While the full impacts of the COVID-19 crisis on municipal revenues over the next few years are still unknown, what is clear is that we have been thrust into an economic recession that is unmatched in the modern era. During economic downturns, the property tax is a relatively stable source of revenue. The average city relies on the property tax for about one-quarter of general fund revenue, according to the Lincoln Institute’s Fiscally Standardized Cities, or FiSC, database. (Counties, by comparison, rely on the property tax for about one-third of their general fund revenue, according to the National Association of Counties.)

“During most post-World War II recessions, property tax revenues have not declined,” says the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy’s Adam Langley, who manages the FiSC database. This is largely because even if a downturn is prolonged enough to affect local home values, the lag time between real estate market changes and property valuations gives governments time to raise rates to make up the anticipated difference in revenue. “The notable exception is the Great Recession,” said Langley, associate director of U.S. and Canadian programs, “and that was a unique circumstance because of the historic housing bust.”

Kansas City Budget Director Scott Huizenga noted that the city’s rainy day reserves are at a record high — equivalent to nearly 20 percent of general fund spending. That’s a far better position than Kansas City was in entering the Great Recession, when it had about 5 percent of annual spending in reserves, according to Pew Trusts. Huizenga notes that forecasting the revenue impacts of the current crisis is a challenge.

“Like most places, we have a two-month delay between the activity on the ground and the revenue impact,” Huizenga said during an interview in late May. “It will be at least a few weeks more before we learn the totality of what happened in April, much less what’s going to happen a year from now.”

Even cities that rely on the relative stability of the property tax are by no means immune from the uncertainty of the moment. Cities across the country are struggling to balance their need for property tax revenue with the potential need to grant deferrals or other targeted tax relief to property owners who may not be able to pay their bills.

For example, California Gov. Gavin Newsom signed an executive order waiving penalties through May 6, 2021 for late property tax payments made by those affected by COVID-19. But the California Association of County Treasurers and Tax Collectors then urged those who could pay to do so on time, noting that property taxes “directly fund education, health care, hospitals, welfare services, fire protection, and homelessness efforts, to name a few.” At this point, most localities haven’t significantly pushed back property tax bill deadlines, even if their state has allowed it.

In many places, existing property tax relief programs are available, and when effectively targeted can provide critical relief to the neediest households without unduly diminishing local revenues. These “circuit breakers” provide relief to households once their property taxes exceed a specified percentage of income, so people with a sudden drop in earnings could qualify for substantial relief. Circuit breakers are available in 33 states and the District of Columbia, although many of those states use formulas that will not provide adequate relief to those with the heaviest tax burdens.

Conflicting predictions about the future of commercial real estate have also added uncertainty to the municipal property tax picture. With social distancing restrictions and other public health precautions decimating the retail and hospitality sector, several major retailers have declared bankruptcy and businesses of all sizes are struggling to stay open.

“Shopping malls and property used in the hospitality and entertainment industry may very well be facing a significant loss in value, particularly over the next couple of years.” said Lincoln Institute Resident Fellow Daphne Kenyon. “This would disproportionately affect those cities that are tourist or shopping meccas.” Reliance on commercial property tax revenue varies significantly from state to state, as illustrated by the Significant Features of the Property Tax database.

The future of commercial office space is also in question; it is expected that many employers will allow full or partial telecommuting after COVID-19 restrictions are lifted, and one University of Chicago study found that 34 percent of jobs in the United States could be performed remotely. Already, major tech companies like Facebook and Twitter have announced plans to let employees work from home permanently.

Some experts are predicting a sort of real estate “swap,” which could see businesses seeking new property outside of downtowns and former downtown office buildings converted to housing. Still others suggest that the smaller space requirements of housing fewer workers will be offset by the need to accommodate social distancing. These and other issues raise questions about the future of real estate in large cities—and therefore the value of downtown real estate properties and the tax revenue they generate.

Hilltop Securities’ Tom Kozlik said there were somewhat similar concerns that firms wouldn’t want to return to downtown Manhattan after the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

“I remember there were some people hesitant to fly or go up in skyscrapers, but that seemed to pass in a pretty short amount of time,” said Kozlik, head of municipal credit for the firm. “This time it’s a little different—I don’t think people have their heads around what the entire public health threat is right now. And that’s one of things policymakers are trying to figure out.”

Despite the many uncertainties facing municipal governments, Kenyon says the relative stability of the property tax is not in doubt. “Property taxes are the most stable of the big three taxes—income, sales, and property. For local governments that depend heavily on the property tax, and for the citizens who benefit from the services that property taxes support, this is a ray of light in a very tumultuous time.”

Liz Farmer is a fiscal policy expert and journalist whose areas of expertise include budgets, fiscal distress, and tax policy. She is currently a research fellow at the Rockefeller Institute’s Future of Labor Research Center.

Photographs in order of appearance

In municipalities across the country, including Kansas City, Missouri, leaders are grappling with the fiscal impacts of COVID-19. The impacts will vary depending on the relative sources of tax revenue in each place. Credit: Kate Brown via Flickr CC BY 2.0.

During most post-World War II recessions, property tax revenues have not declined, largely because the lag time between real estate market changes and property valuations gives governments time to make up the anticipated difference in revenue. The notable exception was the Great Recession. Credit: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

In Los Angeles, someone who has owned a median-priced home for 14 years—the average length of ownership in the city—paid about $4,400 in property taxes last year, or about $3,600 less than a new owner of an identical home, who paid nearly $8,000. This gap between the tax bills for new and established homeowners grew by $400 last year alone, and has increased by $1,500 in the past four years, according to the annual 50-State Property Tax Comparison Study by the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy and the Minnesota Center for Fiscal Excellence.

Los Angeles is one of 29 large cities included in the report where assessment limits cap annual growth in the assessed value of individual properities, a policy that favors longtime homeowners. When real estate prices rise, these assessment limits shift more of the tax burden to newer homeowners, whose properties are assessed closer to the market value. Overall, in the 29 cities with these assessment limits, new homeowners paid 30 percent more in taxes last year than those who have owned their homes for the average duration within their city, more than double the 14-percent disparity four years earlier.

The 50-State Property Tax Comparison Study explores several key factors influencing property taxes, providing a comprehensive analysis of effective property tax rates—the tax paid as a percentage of market value—in 123 cities in every U.S. state and Washington, DC.

Drawing on data for 73 large U.S. cities, the study explains why property taxes vary so widely from place to place. Reliance on the property tax is chief among the reasons. Cities with high local sales or income taxes do not need to raise as much revenue from the property tax and thus have lower property tax rates on average. For example, Bridgeport, Connecticut, has one of the highest effective tax rates on the median-valued home, while Birmingham, Alabama, has one of the lowest. But the average Birmingham resident pays 32 percent more in total local taxes when accounting for sales, income, and other local taxes.

Property values are the other crucial factor explaining differences in tax rates. Cities with low property values need to impose a higher tax rate to raise the same revenue as cities with high property values. For example, the effective tax rate on the typical home in Detroit, which has the lowest median home value in the study, is three times higher than in San Francisco, which has the highest, after accounting for assessment limits. In Detroit, to raise $3,206 per home—the national average tax bill on a median-valued home—would require an effective tax rate 23 times higher than in San Francisco.

Other drivers of variation in property tax rates include the different treatment of various classes of property, such as residential and commercial, and the level of local government spending.

Among the largest cities in each state, the average effective tax rate on a median-valued home was 1.4 percent in 2019, with wide variation across cities. Four cities have effective tax rates that are at least double the national average—Aurora (IL), Bridgeport, Newark(NJ), and Detroit. Conversely, seven cities have tax rates less than half of the average—Honolulu, Boston, Charleston (SC), Denver, Cheyenne (WY), Birmingham, and Nashville.

Commercial property tax rates on office buildings and similar properties also vary significantly across cities. The effective tax rate on a $1 million commercial property is 1.9 percent, on average, across the largest cities in each state. The highest rates are in Detroit, Providence, Chicago, and Bridgeport, where rates are at least two-thirds higher than average. Rates are less than half of the average in Cheyenne, Seattle, and Charlotte.

The report is available for download on the Lincoln Institute website:

https://www.lincolninst.edu/publications/other/50-state-property-tax-com…

Will Jason is director of communications at the Lincoln Institute.

Photograph credit: © iStockphoto/benkrut.

For Oakland Mayor Libby Schaaf, the coronavirus crisis began in earnest when California Governor Gavin Newsom requested use of the city’s port to allow sick passengers to disembark from the Crown Princess cruise ship. And life as mayor of this Bay Area city of 435,000 has not been the same since.

Among other things, Schaaf, now in her second term, oversaw a successful lockdown, made vacant hotel rooms available for homeless people, and closed sections of streets to vehicular traffic to encourage biking and walking. Now she is focused on making Oakland more sustainable and equitable than before the pandemic struck.

“I want Oakland to be the ‘silver lining’ city,” Schaaf said in an interview with the Lincoln Institute, recorded in the latest episode of the Land Matters podcast. “I want us to exploit every opportunity in this crisis to make lasting structural change that needed to be made before the crisis.”

At the time of the interview, Schaaf had set up a situation room and communications studio at her home and hadn’t set foot in City Hall in weeks. The lockdown, she said, had revealed how important it is for cities to think creatively, whether making buses free or reimagining downtown. “We’re experimenting, and government doesn’t do that enough,” she said.

“Cities are not going away. Sprawl is not a healthy response. Smart density and the agility and creativity of cities is what’s going to allow us to not just get through this health crisis, but emerge with a more equitable, healthy environment.”

You can listen to the show and subscribe to Land Matters on Apple Podcasts, Google Play, Spotify, Stitcher, or wherever you listen to podcasts. An edited version of the Q & A will also be available as the Mayor’s Desk feature in the July issue of Land Lines.

Further reading:

Land Matters Podcast Episode 11: Helping Cities Through COVID-19

Virtual Viewpoints: Will the Pandemic Change the Face of Public Meetings Forever?

COVID-19: The Pandemic Makes the Case for Megaregions

Anthony Flint is senior fellow in the Office of the President at the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, and a contributing editor of Land Lines.

Photograph: Anthony Flint interviews Mayor Libby Schaaf over Zoom.

Grecia emerge de una crisis financiera que duró una década, y la ciudad de Atenas lucha con desafíos importantes: medidas de austeridad impuestas por la Unión Europea, colapso inmobiliario, problemas permanentes de seguridad y migración, cambio climático y ahora la COVID-19. Kostas Bakoyannis, 41 años, fue electo alcalde en 2019, y prometió estabilidad y reinvención. Bakoyannis es hijo de dos destacados políticos griegos, y es el alto ejecutivo más joven electo para la ciudad, pero su experiencia es vasta. Posee títulos de grado y posgrado de las Universidades Brown, Harvard y Oxford, fue gobernador de Grecia Central y alcalde de Karpenisi, y trabajó en el Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de Grecia, el Parlamento Europeo y el Banco Mundial. Además, tiene cargos en la Agencia Helénica de Desarrollo y Gobierno Local, el Consejo Europeo de Relaciones Exteriores y la Red de Soluciones para un Desarrollo Sostenible de las Naciones Unidas. En una visita reciente a Cambridge, se reunió con Anthony Flint, miembro sénior del Instituto Lincoln.

Anthony Flint: Alguna vez usted dijo que no se centra en proyectos importantes, sino en la calidad de vida del día a día en una ciudad que intenta resurgir de un modo más progresivo. ¿Cuáles son sus observaciones acerca del triunfo de su campaña y la experiencia hasta ahora de estar al mando del gobierno local?

Kostas Bakoyannis: Creo que en toda campaña siempre es importante el mensaje, no el mensajero. Antes, las elecciones de Grecia involucraban a candidatos que hablaban al pueblo desde una posición de superioridad. Yo asumí otro enfoque y empecé a salir a caminar por los vecindarios. Escuché con atención y descubrí que la gente quiere una ciudad que vuelva a inspirarle confianza y optimismo. Ahora, estamos reinventando los servicios y la ciudad misma. Atenas tiene tres récords: el espacio verde urbano per cápita más bajo de Europa, la mayor cantidad de asfalto y la mayor cantidad de metros cuadros por vivienda. Queremos recuperar espacios públicos y en particular recuperar espacios de los automóviles. Estuvimos estudiando la circulación del tráfico, y planeamos cerrar partes del centro de la ciudad a los autos. Además, crearemos un sendero arqueológico alrededor de la ciudad.

En términos generales, es un sueño cumplido. Estoy dando todo de mí. Hace 10 años que estoy en el gobierno local; no se compara con tener un alto cargo. Un día, cuando recién daba mis primeros pasos en el gobierno local, estaba deprimido y pensaba que éramos un fracaso; luego salí a caminar y vi un parque de juegos recién inaugurado. No se trata de solucionar el conflicto entre Corea del Norte y Corea del Sur. Mejorar la calidad de vida es un cambio real, tangible, progresivo.

AF: Con los años, Atenas se vio afectada por el problema de edificios y vidrieras vacíos, grafitis, personas sin techo y una imagen general de ser oscura y sucia. ¿Nos puede contar sus planes para hacer una limpieza?

KB: Había un artículo muy bueno en una revista internacional acerca de la economía griega, pero arriba había una foto de Atenas, con dos personas sin techo durmiendo frente a tiendas cerradas llenas de grafitis. Ese es nuestro desafío. No olvide que estamos en una carrera global por atraer talento, tecnología e inversión. Y Atenas cambia día a día. Mencionaré algunos ejemplos. Adoptamos la teoría de las “ventanas rotas” de la conducta social [que sugiere que los signos visibles de delitos y decadencia invitan a más de lo mismo] y estamos coordinando labores con la policía. Contamos con equipos especiales y realizamos campañas para limpiar grafitis. Tenemos un programa llamado Adopta tu Ciudad, y sociedades públicas y privadas que ya rinden sus frutos. Estamos pidiendo a la gente que ama la ciudad y se preocupa por ella que venga a ayudarnos. Respecto de las drogas, se realizaron reformas. Hace poco, el parlamento aprobó una medida sobre espacios supervisados de consumo de drogas. Aún no operamos uno, pero nos preparamos para hacerlo móvil, para que no quede mucho tiempo en un solo vecindario. El gobierno local podrá operar dichos espacios. Estamos recuperando espacios públicos, como la plaza Omonia, un emblema de la ciudad, y creo que será un símbolo. Hay grandes expectativas acerca del espacio público . . . no se trata solo de obras públicas. Estamos fabricando una experiencia, más que un producto.

AF: Como parte de esa labor, generó controversia por desalojar ocupantes ilegales en el vecindario Exarchia, en un esfuerzo que incluyó incursiones al amanecer y reubicación de refugiados e inmigrantes indocumentados. ¿Cómo cumple con su promesa de campaña de reinstaurar la ley y el orden y reducir la inmigración ilegal, y al mismo tiempo mantener la sensibilidad ante las vidas humanas involucradas?

KB: Le daré un ejemplo: un individuo que se hacía llamar Fidel tenía un hostel en una escuela, la ocupaba y cobraba dinero. Movimos a los niños de forma segura para aprovechar disposiciones del servicio social. Los medios griegos tienen una fijación con Exarchia. Se convierte en un arma política para ambos extremos. Yo no lo veo así. Tenemos 129 vecindarios, y Exarchia tiene sus propios problemas. Mucho de lo que hacemos tiene que ver con persistir e insistir; es una cuestión de quién se cansará primero. Nosotros no nos cansaremos primero.

En materia de pluralismo, somos el canario en la mina. Sobrevivimos a la crisis económica, y hoy somos más fuertes de lo que fuimos en los últimos 10 años. Nuestra democracia es más profunda, nuestras instituciones son más sólidas. Aislamos a los extremistas. Nos enfrentamos al partido nazi-fascista Amanecer Dorado: fuimos a los vecindarios en los que tenía aceptación. No señalamos a la gente y le dijimos que hizo mal en votar a Amanecer Dorado. Le dijimos: podemos ofrecer mejores soluciones a los problemas que tienen.

Atenas es una ciudad griega, una ciudad capital y un centro para los griegos de todo el mundo. Dicho esto, Atenas está cambiando y evolucionando. Recuerdo haber visto a una joven negra en un desfile que sostenía la bandera con orgullo. Creo que estaba diciendo: “Yo soy tan griega como tú”. Queremos asegurarnos de que todos los que viven en la ciudad tengan los mismos derechos y obligaciones.

AF: ¿Cuáles son los elementos más importantes de sus planes para ayudar a Atenas a combatir el cambio climático y prepararse para el impacto inevitable en los próximos años?

KB: ¡Piense de otro modo! Se trata de trabajar de abajo hacia arriba. Lo más interesante de lo que está ocurriendo en términos de políticas públicas sucede en las ciudades: son verdaderos laboratorios de innovación. Las naciones-estado están fracasando. Hay demasiado partidismo, un ambiente tóxico, y las burocracias que no pueden lidiar con los verdaderos problemas; las ciudades están más cerca del ciudadano. Estamos orgullosos de formar parte de C40. Atenas desarrolló una política de sostenibilidad y resiliencia. Entre otras cosas, estamos trabajando en intervenciones ambiciosas, pero realistas, para liberar espacio público, multiplicar espacios verdes y crear zonas libres de autos. Para nosotros, el cambio climático no es una teoría o una abstracción. Es un peligro real y presente que no podemos esconder abajo de la alfombra. Exige respuestas concretas.

AF: Hace poco, tuvo la oportunidad de volver a Cambridge y Harvard. ¿Qué nivel de interés halló en el futuro de Atenas? ¿Hay cosas que aprendió de las ciudades de Estados Unidos? ¿Y qué puede aprender Estados Unidos de usted?

KB: Me entusiasmó y animó el nivel de interés, y agradezco que me hayan tenido en cuenta. Debo admitir que me sentí muy orgulloso de representar a una ciudad con un pasado largo y glorioso, y un futuro brillante y prometedor. Puede que vivamos en extremos opuestos del Atlántico, y en ciudades muy distintas, pero es interesante que nos enfrentamos a desafíos similares porque los centros urbanos evolucionan y se transforman. Y siempre es muy bueno compartir experiencias y momentos de aprendizaje. Las políticas para mejorar la resiliencia son el ejemplo más obvio. Y, por supuesto, luchar contra las desigualdades sociales es la prioridad de nuestros planes. Me alegra haber iniciado conversaciones prometedoras y provechosas que continuarán los próximos meses y años.

Fotografía: Kostas Bakoyannis, alcalde de Atenas. Crédito: Ciudad de Atenas.

Over the past 25 years, the western edge of Missoula, Montana, has been a hotbed of growth. Thousands of residents have moved into new neighborhoods built on former agricultural land, with big box stores like Costco and Home Depot cropping up nearby. The city and county are now considering multi-use development of the 2,000 or so undeveloped acres remaining in the area—a tract surrounded on two sides by housing and adjacent to a main thoroughfare and the regional airport—and public input is key to shaping the direction of the project. But with the COVID-19 crisis halting all in-person planning meetings and approvals in the region, including a scheduled community charrette, the planning process went online.

During a multi-day virtual charrette in April, participants watched presentations and videos on the current plan, whose elements include affordable housing, community-supported agriculture, walkable urban centers, and the restoration of a local creek. They submitted questions and answered daily online polls, and those who couldn’t attend could access videos and submit comments after the fact. All told, more than 280 people participated in the charrette or later visited the “virtual studio.” The videos—on topics including historical and environmental preservation, traffic planning, and stormwater management—have gotten thousands of views.

“The event was attended by far more people and a wider variety of people than a live event,” said Jason King, a principal at Florida-based project consultant Dover, Kohl & Partners. “Landowners called in from Seattle, and a member of the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Reservation called in from the Flathead Reservation. These are people who it is difficult to get to an on-site charrette but who we talked to specifically because they could call in from their homes and offices.” At this virtual charrette and others the firm has held, King says, “we see more than just ‘the usual suspects’ from city council night.”

Amy Cotter of the Lincoln Institute, who previously directed regional planning initiatives for the Metropolitan Area Planning Council in Boston, says casting that broader net can make planning processes more representative and more robust. “Using technology could open the doors to people who have barriers to attending public meetings in person,” said Cotter. “Maybe they have to look after kids in the evening, or they don’t feel comfortable entering a public building, or have night class. By giving people more ways to access meetings, you’re going to get more participation and, I’d argue, better decisions.”

But shifting to virtual convenings isn’t always simple. Many localities have had to wait for state leaders to remove legal barriers preventing them from going forward. Florida, Delaware, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, Rhode Island, and Utah are among states with executive action seeking to suspend, amend, or clarify open meeting laws to allow for remote meetings. Some legislatures are taking up the issue as well, with states including Oklahoma, Ohio, Tennessee, and Pennsylvania considering legislation that addresses open meeting laws and virtual engagement.

In New York City, the epicenter of the COVID-19 crisis in the United States, Mayor Bill de Blasio temporarily suspended the city’s land-use decision making processes even as the city received state permission to hold online meetings. Anita Laremont, executive director of the city’s planning department, expects that planning meetings will restart shortly. But she also said that COVID-19, the economic crisis it has created, and its disruption to daily life means that planning departments need to be realistic about what needs to move forward and what can wait.

“We will look at everything we put forward through the lens of whether it helps with the recovery,” Laremont said. “If we have neighborhood rezonings designed to develop additional affordable housing, we might choose to go forward because that remains an issue in the city.”

When it comes to executing the meetings themselves, planners must consider access and equity. How can online meetings conducted in English provide translation for speakers of other languages? How can cities best reach those without internet access or technical know-how?

Many platforms do offer language interpretation services for meetings and webinars, and options such as a call-in number can give attendees without internet access the opportunity to listen and participate in a meaningful way. But whether planners use general videoconferencing tools such as Zoom or GoToMeeting or planning-specific tools such as coUrbanize and Polco, figuring out which platform’s services work best for a city’s needs requires legwork. 

“It means speaking to all of these platforms and trying to understand what they can accommodate,” said Laremont. “That’s the only way we’ve really been able to do it, is to go and talk to them.”

Comparing notes with fellow planners is also vital, said Milwaukee Long Range Planning Manager Sam Leichtling. His department has been exploring the methods peers across the country are employing and collecting examples of approaches that capture different audiences. 

“I applaud the private vendors trying to adapt their technology to COVID-19, and with the right scenario, those tools have amazing uses,” Leichtling said. “But as a profession, we have to acknowledge that’s not going to be the solution to every case. Phone trees, dropping literature off at neighborhood facilities, these analog methods are still vital.”

It may well be that future planning processes use some combination of methods to reach as many people as possible. King confirmed that Dover, Kohl intends to combine virtual and on-site sessions going forward, pointing out that online convenings offer additional benefits including a lower carbon footprint and reduced travel time and costs for consultants and other experts. Cotter also noted that the Lincoln Institute advances more effective and inclusive public engagement strategies through its Consortium for Scenario Planning, which involves stakeholders beyond the planning office by introducing diverse voices into the process.

“Will we return to a situation where we rely only on traditional public meetings?” Cotter asked. “I doubt it. I think this will be a component of the way cities conduct business going forward.”

Liz Farmer is a fiscal policy expert and journalist whose areas of expertise include budgets, fiscal distress, and tax policy. She is currently a research fellow at the Rockefeller Institute’s Future of Labor Research Center.

Photograph: A virtual charrette allowed planners and the public to exchange information and ideas related to a potential development in Missoula, Montana. Credit: Courtesy of Dover, Kohl & Partners.