Vacant land and its integration into the urban land market are topics rarely investigated in Latin America. The existing literature tends to focus only on descriptive aspects (i.e., number and size of lots). In the current context of profound economic and social transformations and changing supply and demand patterns of land in cities, the perception of vacant land is beginning to change from being a problem to offering an opportunity.

A comparative study of vacant land in six Latin American cities (Buenos Aires, Argentina; Lima, Peru; Quito, Ecuador; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; San Salvador, El Salvador; and Santiago, Chile) was recently completed as part of an ongoing Lincoln Institute-sponsored research project. The participating researchers examined different categories of vacant land, the problems they generate and their potential uses, as well as the changing roles of both private and public agents, including governments, in the management of vacant land. They concluded that vacant land is an integral element of the complex land markets in these cities, affecting fiscal policies on land and housing. Thus, vacant land has great potential for large-scale developments that could result in improved conditions for urban areas, as well as reduced social polarization and greater equity for their populations.

The six cities in the study vary in size but share the common attributes of rapid population growth and territorial expansion. They also have comparable social indicators (high rates of poverty, unemployment and underemployment), significant deficits in housing and provision of services, and high levels of geographical social stratification and segregation. The land markets in each of the cities also have similar characteristics, although they exhibit their own dynamics in each sub-market.

Characteristics of Vacant Land

The four primary characteristics of vacant land considered in this research project are ownership, quantity, location and length of vacancy. In general, vacant land in Latin America is held by one or more of the following agents, each with their respective policies: real estate developers or sub-dividers (both legal and illegal); low-income people who have acquired land, but cannot afford to develop it; real estate speculators; farmers; state enterprises; and other institutions such as the church, the military, social security, etc.

Determining how much vacant land exists in each city depends on the definition given to the term in the respective country . Quantifying vacant land is further complicated by the numerous obstacles that exist to obtaining accurate information, thus limiting the possibility of comparing data and percentages across metropolitan areas. Finally, in several of these cities (San Salvador, Santiago and Buenos Aires) there are significant “latent” vacant areas. These are unused or marginally used buildings, often previously occupied by former state-owned companies, waiting for new investments in order to be demolished or redeveloped.

In these six cities, the percentage of vacant land ranges from under 5 percent in San Salvador to nearly 44 percent in Rio de Janeiro. If all of San Salvador’s “latent” vacant areas were included, the percentage of vacant land could increase to 40 percent of the total metropolitan area. On the whole, vacant land in the cities accounts for a significant percentage of serviced areas that could potentially house considerable numbers of people who currently have no access to serviced urban land.

The location of vacant land is relatively uniform throughout the region. Whereas in the United States vacant land tends to be centrally located (such as abandoned areas or industrial brownfield sites), in Latin America the majority of vacant sites lie in the outskirts of the cities. These areas are frequently associated with speculation and retention strategies for occupation based on the provision of services. In contrast, the length of time land has been vacant differs considerably: in Lima and Quito, vacant urban lots are relatively “new,” whereas in Buenos Aires some urban lots have remained vacant for several decades.

Policy Issues and Development Potential

An evaluation of the urban-environmental conditions of vacant land concludes that a significant number of sites could tolerate residential or productive activities. These areas currently constitute an underutilized resource and should be considered for investments in urban infrastructure to improve land use efficiency. An equally significant segment, however, has important risk factors: inadequate basic infrastructure; water polluted by industrial waste; risk of flood, erosion or earthquake; and poor accessibility. Such land is inappropriate for occupation unless significant investments are made to safeguard against these environmental problems. Some land in this category could have great potential for environmental protection, although consciousness about land conservation remains a low priority in Latin America.

The study asserts that, in general, the urban poor have little access to vacant land due to high land values, despite the fact that values do vary according to sub-market. Prices are high in areas of dynamic urban expansion that offer better accessibility and services. A large amount of vacant land in several of the cities studied is not on the market and will likely remain vacant for an indefinite period of time. It is in these areas, the researchers contend, that policies should be implemented to reduce the price of serviced vacant land to make it more accessible to the poor.

The majority of Latin American cities have no explicit policies or legal framework regarding vacant land. In those cities where some legislation does exist, such as Rio de Janeiro, it is basically limited to recommendations and lacks real initiatives. In Santiago, recent legislation has promoted increased density in urban areas, yet it is too soon to know the implications of these measures. References to the environment are also generally lacking in “urban” legislation. Vacant land could play an important role in urban sustainability. However, reaching this potential would depend on better articulation between environmental and planning actions, especially at the local level.

Another characteristic common to the areas studied, with the exception of Santiago, is that urban development policy and specific land market policies have been disconnected from tax policy. Even in those cities where there is a distinction in taxation on vacant versus built land-such as Buenos Aires or Quito-it has not translated into any real changes. Sanctions and higher taxes on vacant areas have largely been avoided through a series of loopholes and “exceptions.”

Proposals and Criteria for Implementation

Arguing for an increased government role in land markets in combination with institution-building and capacity-building among other involved actors, the study formulates a number of proposals for the use and reuse of vacant land in Latin America. An overriding proposal is that vacant land should be incorporated into the city’s overall policy framework, taking into account the diversity of vacant land situations. Land use policies to increase the number of green areas, build low-income housing and provide needed infrastructure should be implemented as part of a framework of urban planning objectives. Furthermore, vacant land should be used to promote “urban rationality” by stimulating the occupation of vacant lots in areas with existing infrastructure and repressing urban growth in areas without appropriate infrastructure.

Urban policy objectives on vacant land should also be pursued through tax policy. Some suggestions formulated in this regard are the broadening of the tax base and tax instruments; incorporating mechanisms for value capture in urban public investment; application of a progressive property tax policy (to discourage land retention by high-income owners); and greater flexibility in the municipal tax apparatus.

These policies should be linked to other mechanisms designed to deter the expansion of vacant land and the dynamic of geographical social stratification and segregation. Such related mechanisms might include the granting of low-interest credits or subsidies for the purchase of building materials; technical assistance for construction of housing; provision of infrastructure networks to reduce costs; and credits or grace periods for payment of closing costs, taxes and service fees on property.

Other proposals address the development of pilot programs for land transfers using public-private partnerships to build on government-owned land in order to promote social housing at affordable rates; reuse of some land for agricultural production; and greater attention to environmental issues, with the goal of assuring urban sustainability in the future.

The 1994 Regulatory Plan for the Santiago metropolitan area defined a goal of elevating the city’s average density by 50 percent, while 1995 reforms to the Ley de Rentas introduced a fee on non-edified land and a disincentive to land speculation.

Nora Clichevsky is a researcher with CONICET, the National Council for Scientific and Technical Research in Buenos Aires, Argentina. She is the coordinator of the six-city study of vacant land in Latin America, which met to discuss these findings in August 1998. Laura Mullahy, a research assistant with the Lincoln Institute’s Latin American Program, contributed to this article.

Other members of the research team are Julio Calderón of Lima, Peru; Diego Carrión and Andrea Carrión of CIUDAD in Quito, Ecuador; Fernanda Furtado and Fabrizio Leal de Oliveira of the University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Mario Lungo and Francisco Oporto of the Central American University in El Salvador; and Patricio Larraín of the Chilean Ministry of Housing and Urbanism.

In the next phase of this project, the Lincoln Institute will sponsor a seminar on vacant land this spring in Río de Janeiro, with the participation of the original researchers as well as other experts from each of the cities involved.

Rampant informality, so emblematic of large cities in developing countries, poses many challenges for property taxation systems. For instance, tenure rights in informal settlements are often obscure or even unknown; buildings are constructed gradually over time, self-construction is common, and the whole unit may never be finished; property value depends on vague or intangible factors such as the security provided by community organizations; the occupant or even the legal owner may be too poor to pay taxes; administrative costs of tax collection are higher than in the formal areas, whereas assessed values are often much lower; and there is hardly any public investment in infrastructure and services.

These critical features of informal housing seem to violate many of the premises on which the administration of a property tax system is grounded: identification of taxable property and corresponding taxpayers; description of the property’s physical characteristics; determination of property values on a reasonable market basis and according to predictable measures; the taxpayer’s presumed ability to pay; collection costs that are relatively low compared to the revenue collected; and an expectation that tax revenues would benefit the area from which the tax was collected.

This comparison depicts the essence of the conventional wisdom on informal occupations and the reasons why they are generally disregarded for taxation purposes, but misconceptions and prejudices are evident. This article examines some of these biases and their consequences for property tax collection in informal areas. The Latin American situation is used to illustrate this debate, but this study is still exploratory due to limited data. The arguments discussed indicate promising directions for further analyses, rather than conclusive findings in most cases.

Informal Occupations

In land occupation and housing, informality is a multidimensional phenomenon involving thorny issues related to land tenure; noncompliance with urban norms and regulations, such as minimum lot size, allowance for public spaces, and street layouts; inadequate provision of public services and equipment; and occupation of improper areas, such as environmentally protected or ecologically risky areas and contaminated brownfield sites.

Slums originated by land invasions are the first image of informality that comes to mind, but other social and physical forms of informality range from pirate subdivisions, usually characterized by market sales of land having no clear title, to situations where even legally qualified owners with titled land do not conform to existing urban norms and regulations.

According to the United Nations–Habitat (2003), about 928 million people (32 percent of the world’s urban population or 43 percent of the population of developing countries) currently live in slums with precarious urban infrastructure and inadequate public services. If current trends and policies continue, the report estimates that slum populations will increase by 37 million per year to reach a total of 1.5 billion people in 2020. Although Latin America accounts for 9 percent of the world’s population, it comprises about 14 percent of those who live in slums.

Why is Informality a Problem?

Informality disorganizes the functioning of urban land markets, since illegal, irregular, and clandestine operators are able to reap higher profits by avoiding some costs, such as taxes, the cost of protecting the land from invasions, or the cost of providing basic urban infrastructure and services. Contrary to expectations, land prices per square meter in informal settlements are often higher than those in formal areas, when discounting investments related to the provision of water, electricity, drainage, sewerage, and other services.

Moreover, informality is expensive for society. The costs of curative policies to upgrade irregular settlements are higher than the cost of new land development, and indirect social costs include the presence of criminal activity and natural disasters caused by development in environmentally sensitive areas. The evidence also suggests that informality is both a cause and an effect of urban poverty. The geographic distribution of poverty tends to overlap with the spatial pattern of informal arrangements, although the magnitude and persistence of informality cannot be entirely explained by poverty. A survey conducted by the Instituto Pereira Passos (2002) based on the Brazilian Census of 2000 found that about 64 percent of the population classified as poor actually lived outside the slum areas.

Myths of Informality

There are many prevailing myths about how informal settlements are either established or operated, including the perception that occupants in informal areas are neither willing nor able to pay property taxes. In fact, not only are occupiers usually willing to pay the tax as a way to legitimate their land tenure, but they are often quite able to pay it. New occupants, in fact, have already paid the property tax in the form of higher land prices, yet the payment went to either the subdivider or original landowner instead of the government.

Moreover, payment of the property tax by occupants of informal areas is likely to legitimate their right to demand public services and other urban improvements from government authorities. Many informal occupants also realize that private provision of basic services through informal means, such as buying water from a truck, is likely to be more costly and risky than payment of the property tax.

Other myths or assumptions about informality include beliefs that occupants of informal settlements are necessarily poor; informal settlements are occupied only by unemployed and informal workers; formal property title is necessary to obtain access to credit; informal settlements are homogeneous entities clearly distinguished from formal settlements; and occupation of informal settlements is made through nonmarket transactions.

Property Tax Collection

In an attempt to relate property tax collection per inhabitant to the presence of informality, we used data based on a survey of municipalities conducted in 1999 by the Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE 2001). Table 1 presents data that measured two criteria: the occurrence of slums (i.e., informal settlements caused by invasions) and the existence of all types of irregular land development. Slums occur in 27.6 percent of all municipalities in Brazil, while irregular land development (including slums) occurs in almost 44 percent of them. The maximum value of property tax collected is higher in larger municipalities and those with slums and other irregular developments, and the revenues also tend to be higher on average than in those municipalities without such development.

However, Table 2 illustrates the difficulty of monitoring property ownership and tax collection records by comparing the presence of cadastres in municipalities with records on slums and informal settlements. Local cadastres cover information on slums in 52.5 percent of the municipalities in which they are found, but only 39 percent of those cities have complete records on informality. By comparison, 50.5 percent of municipalities with irregular land developments have this information included in their cadastres, and 51 percent of the cases with records have complete information. Thus, one cannot reject the hypothesis that the larger, richer, and more developed municipalities are also the ones with better records on informal occupations.

Using the IBGE database, a model for multiple regression analysis was developed to test the relationship between informality and the property tax collected per inhabitant. The relationship was controlled with other attributes available in the database, including the average income per inhabitant, the size of the population, and a group of variables associated with the role of the local administration in promoting urban development. Based on this model, which explains approximately 72 percent of the variation in the property tax collected per inhabitant, the following factors have proven to be influential in determining the amount of property tax collected.

• Urban regulations and minimum lot sizes. The findings support the argument that municipalities with a more complete regulatory framework are able to collect more property tax per inhabitant. Consistently, a decrease in the property tax collected per inhabitant is found in municipalities where no minimum lot size is established. Thus, stricter land use regulations have a positive effect on property tax performance, as much as their absence produces adverse effects.
• Updated property cadastre and maps. As expected, municipalities in which the property cadastre and maps have been updated more recently tend to obtain a higher collection ratio. The model also indicates that municipalities that use more technology, as measured by the use of a digital cadastre, are able to collect more property tax per inhabitant than the others.
• Occurrence of slums. Municipalities with slums collect more property tax per inhabitant than those without slums. A plausible explanation for this phenomenon may be that more industrialized and/or more economically dynamic cities have a higher incidence of informality. In this case, the loss of property tax revenue generated by informality is likely to be compensated by the revenue collected in high-income areas and from commercial and industrial properties.
• Inclusion of informal property in the cadastre. The importance of a more universal tax base is also confirmed, as reflected in better property tax performance when informality is recorded at the local government level.
• Collection ratio. Municipalities with less tax evasion, that is, a higher collection ratio, tend to collect more property taxes per inhabitant.
• Average income per inhabitant. Finally, the average income per inhabitant is the most important factor in tax collection, accounting for about 42 percent of the variation in the property tax collected per inhabitant.

In addition to the level of income, the findings clearly indicate the importance of an effective administration of the property tax. In other words, even in the presence of informality municipalities achieve better results in comparative terms if they maintain updated cadastres and maps, include informal properties in the cadastre, and have a broad framework of urban legislation. In summary, when focusing strictly on the property tax performance, the major cause of concern is not the presence of informality itself, but the way public officials deal with it for property tax purposes.

The Property Tax as a Tool to Reverse Informality

A more vigorous property tax is likely to affect informality directly. For instance, the portion of the property tax levied on land value constitutes a strong antidote to force the existing stock of serviced land to the market. The property tax may also be important as a tool to influence the decision-making process for which areas should receive urban services. Indeed, communities without a property tax system are particularly vulnerable when it comes to seeking public attention.

The property tax can also be an educational mechanism for helping citizens realize their rights and duties, including the need to contribute to public expenses. The government’s commitment to allocate tax revenues fairly and equitably provides greater legitimacy to the tax. Furthermore, a property tax may be one mechanism to reduce land prices through the capitalization effect (Bahl and Linn 1992). Usually local government recognition of occupancy has no direct, legal effect on guaranteeing property titles at the public registry, but informal occupiers may perceive it as a kind of a green card to access the legal world.

Rabello de Castro (2000) has argued that there are solid legal grounds to use cadastres for property tax purposes to legitimize tenure rights, and that the courts would have no difficulty in admitting such records as trustworthy evidence. Finally, there is an advantage for the property tax to cover informal property because its application requires specific knowledge of the area, which has immensurable value to the city management.

Policy Recommendations

Informality poses particular challenges to property tax administration, including the need to design feasible and politically acceptable procedures. Following are some policy recommendations for consideration.

• Extend tax liability to occupants in informal settlements. Limiting property tax liability to the landowner reduces the ability to collect taxes in countries with a substantial number of informal settlements. Legislation could establish the possessor or occupier as the taxpayer of record, so there should be no technical impediment to considering alternative forms of secured tenure to meet the challenge of enhancing the universality of the property tax.
• Update urban cadastres. Conventional cadastral procedures and techniques are not able to keep up with the physical and legal idiosyncrasies of informal settlements. Low-cost, flexible initiatives to update cadastres and identify irregular land subdivisions and buildings might include the establishment of partnerships with companies that provide public services or institutions responsible for social programs.
• Determine how to assess informal property. Assessing informal property is a challenge since there is little understanding of how informal markets operate. This may require taking into account atypical determinants of property values (e.g., the value of relaxed urbanistic norms and regulations) and creative sources of information (e.g., neighborhood association records on property transactions). However, a vibrant property market is generally observed in informal areas, and the analysis of the determinants of land prices is as feasible and amenable to standard techniques as the analysis undertaken in formal markets (Abramo 2003). Another alternative is to use self-assessment, as applied in Bogotá, Colombia, using simplified forms to make the process easier for low-income families.
• Bypass assessment difficulties for progressive housing. Self-production of housing is common, and improvements may take place on a gradual, albeit permanent, basis in informal occupations. Consequently, proper taxation of informal properties would require inspecting the houses more frequently. These difficult circumstances suggest considering other alternatives, including the use of either the site value as the tax base or a self-reporting scheme. Neighborhood associations and community organizations could be involved in such programs. Initiatives to encourage self-reporting would be facilitated by the extent to which the revenue collected is earmarked to improve public services and equipment in the neighborhoods in which the property tax was collected.
• Minimize tax evasion. Contrary to the view that higher rates of tax evasion prevail in low-valued properties, the general perception is that tax evasion is more likely to occur on high-valued properties. Local administrators and other sources confirm that poor families are quite willing to have their properties included in the fiscal cadastre, and to pay the property tax.
• Adjust the tax burden on the poor. Current alternatives for either reducing or eliminating the tax burden on the poor in formal areas should be applied to informal areas. Such measures include either deductions or exemptions according to the property value, the family income, or both criteria, and the use of progressive rates starting at a symbolic value and moving up according to classes of assessed values.
• Establish a fiscal culture. Symbolic tax payments may have no impact in terms of revenue, but are likely to contribute to the creation of a fiscal culture. A sustainable tax system for informal housing requires steps similar to those for formal property markets: adjust the tax burden according to the ability-to-pay; demonstrate to taxpayers the public benefits related to the collection of the property tax; promote educational programs explaining the rights and duties of citizens; and apply effective and reasonable penalties for cases of nonpayment.

Even though most informal property is excluded from the property rolls, the above requirements should be applied to informal properties if a higher level of efficiency in property tax collection is to be achieved. The argument about high collection costs to exclude low-valued properties (or low-income families for that matter) from the tax-rolls should be reckoned against the benefits of promoting broader fiscal citizenship.

A Longer View

The collection of property taxes in informal areas may be not only possible under certain circumstances, but also attractive for pursuing a more effective urban policy that is capable of mitigating informality and its negative effects for society in general and for individual occupants of these settlements in particular.

Despite the difficulty of providing empirical evidence on its theoretical impacts on the land market, the part of the property tax levied on the land value is likely to produce effects that are critical to mitigate the distortions and dysfunctions in land markets with a high degree of informality. These effects include stimulating land development; deterring land speculation; reducing land prices; increasing the supply of urbanized land; encouraging more compact cities; promoting more efficient provision of urban infrastructure and services; and encouraging a more rational pattern of development. Indirect benefits may include the relevance of the information generated to identify property, the use of paid property taxes as a paralegal means to legitimize tenure rights, and last but not least the opportunity for accessing citizenship and becoming integrated into society.

In summary, when focusing on the property tax performance, the major cause of concern is not so much informality itself, but the way public officials treat informality and how they administer a property tax system. In this context, the introduction of the property tax into an environment with rampant informality requires special caution. The challenges to operating the property tax in informal areas include the need to understand the informal market, curb intervening land ownership claims from previous or absent owners, improve administrative capability, and legitimize public actions that result in social benefits to the poor. In addition, public officials need to overcome prejudice and misconceptions regarding informality and introduce efficient property tax initiatives that may actually reduce informality.

About the Authors

Martim O. Smolka is senior fellow and director of the Program on Latin America and the Caribbean at the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

Claudia M. De Cesare is a property tax advisor to the Secretariat of Finance in the municipality of Porto Alegre, Brazil. She is on the advisory board of the International Property Tax Institute (IPTI) and is a faculty member of the Lincoln Institute.

References

Abramo, Pedro. 2003. A teoria econômica da favela: quatro notas sobre a localização residencial dos pobres e o mercado imobiliário informal, in A cidade da informalidade: o desafio das cidades latino-americanas, Pedro Abramo (Org.). Rio de Janeiro: Librería Sette Letras, Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, and Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

Bahl, R.W., and Johannes F. Linn. 1992. Urban Public Finance in Developing Countries. Washington DC: Oxford University Press.

Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE). 2001. Perfil dos municípios brasileiros: Pesquisa de informações básicas municipais, 1999. Rio de Janeiro: IBGE.

Instituto Pereira Passos. 2002. Evolução da população de favelas no Rio de Janeiro: Uma reflexão sobre os dados mais recentes. Prefeitura da Cidade do Rio de Janeiro. http://www.rio.rj.gov.br.

Rabello de Castro, S. 2000. Habitação: Direito e governança – Duas sugestões para ação governamental. Fundação João Ribeiro. Cadernos de Textos 2: 321–338.

UN–HABITAT. 2003. The challenge of slums: Global report on human settlements. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Human Settlements Programme.

Hoy en día, cerca de un millón de personas vive en apartamentos subterráneos en Beijing, donde, para los 23 millones de habitantes de la gran ciudad, las viviendas sociales cercanas a los lugares de trabajo son muy escasas (Xing 2011). Estas unidades habitacionales por lo general son subdivisiones sin ventanas en sótanos y en refugios antiaéreos, cuyo tamaño promedio es de 9,75 metros cuadrados.

En agosto de 2010, Beijing estableció un plan de tres años para evacuar a los inquilinos de estas viviendas subterráneas. Los desalojos comenzaron en 2011, especialmente en los distritos urbanos más céntricos con valores de suelo caros, pero la demanda continúa siendo alta. En algunas áreas de la ciudad, particularmente en los distritos periféricos, pueden verse en la calle anuncios de alquileres subterráneos y, en Internet, también existen miles de avisos de alquiler de unidades subterráneas.

El presente artículo está basado en el análisis de este fenómeno llevado a cabo por la autora en los años 2012 y 2013, cuando los avisos en Internet de apartamentos subterráneos eran una actividad dinámica y creciente. Los listados de alquiler analizados contienen suficiente información sobre las unidades en particular, tales como ubicación, precio, tamaño, comodidades y nivel de subsuelo, para evaluar la dinámica de este submercado de alquiler de viviendas para personas de bajos recursos.

Escasez de viviendas de alquiler accesible

Tal como ocurre en la mayoría de las ciudades chinas, Beijing sufre una grave escasez de viviendas de alquiler accesible, a consecuencia de la migración masiva hacia los centros urbanos (Liu y otros 2013; Xie y Zhou 2012). La ciudad también tiene una gran cantidad de espacio subterráneo, derivada de una política del año 1950 que establece que todos los edificios nuevos deben tener un subsuelo común y refugios antiaéreos. Los códigos de edificación especifican las pautas de construcción, inclusive la provisión de infraestructura, como electricidad, agua y alcantarillado. Esta disponibilidad de espacio subterráneo ha crecido de forma exponencial en medio del extraordinario boom de la construcción que se ha producido en China en las últimas décadas. Algunos complejos constan de hasta 600 unidades por debajo del nivel del suelo.

Como forma de abordar el déficit de vivienda, las políticas oficiales promovieron, durante 24 años en época de paz, la utilización “económica” de este espacio subterráneo, y uno de los usos establecidos por dicha política fue el residencial (BMBCAD 1986). Sin embargo, en 2010 Beijing cesó de otorgar nuevos permisos de uso de apartamentos subterráneos e instituyó el plan de tres años mencionado anteriormente con el fin de evacuar a los residentes. En vista de la cantidad de personas involucradas y la falta de alternativas de vivienda social, este proceso ha presentado diferentes desafíos, como el hecho de que los propietarios de estas unidades están demandando una compensación por derechos de ocupación que habían adquirido cuando las unidades eran legales.

Viviendas financiadas por el Estado

Desde que China hizo la transición a un mercado privado desde una economía de planificación centralizada, en la que el estado proporcionaba todas las viviendas, el sector inmobiliario ha crecido de forma explosiva. Consideradas principalmente como un vehículo de inversión, las nuevas unidades privadas son accesibles únicamente a aquellos que poseen suficientes ahorros para comprar una vivienda con poco financiamiento.

Las restricciones en la oferta de terrenos constituyen otro obstáculo para la provisión privada de vivienda. Debido a que la intención del Estado, propietario de todos los terrenos del país, es proteger el suelo agrícola fértil, ha prohibido el desarrollo en las áreas rurales de la periferia urbana. Aun así, dichas zonas han experimentado una rápida construcción de proyectos de vivienda por parte de personas que se asientan informalmente. Estos “pueblos urbanos” proporcionan viviendas privadas a una cantidad de entre 5 y 6 millones de personas de bajos ingresos que no pueden acceder a viviendas cercanas al centro de la ciudad, pero el gobierno ha estado intentando demoler estas viviendas.

El Estado chino ofrece cuatro tipos de proyectos de vivienda social, especialmente para empleados públicos con bajos ingresos (ver tabla 1). Los primeros tipos de asistencia fueron el programa lian zu fang, que ofrecía viviendas de alquiler a las familias más pobres, y el programa jing ji shi yong fang, que proporcionaba oportunidades de acceder a la propiedad de una vivienda con subsidio.

En 2011, el gobierno lanzó un programa para construir más viviendas de alquiler (gong zu fang) para personas recientemente graduadas de la universidad y trabajadores cualificados en sectores clave, como la industria de alta tecnología. No obstante, debido a que este programa es algo reciente, la cantidad de unidades de alquiler accesible todavía es relativamente baja. Por otro lado, los proyectos de vivienda xian jia fang están dirigidos a la población desplazada. A pesar de la gran cantidad de unidades que se han construido para residentes de bajos ingresos a lo largo de los años, la demanda supera con creces la oferta, produciéndose una larga lista de espera.

La barrera del hukou

En Beijing, el hukou o permiso de registro de familias, es un requisito previo para acceder a cualquiera de los cuatro tipos de viviendas sociales mencionados. A modo de una retención de la planificación central, el hukou otorga a las familias el derecho a los servicios públicos en el lugar de residencia que el gobierno les ha asignado, pero les restringe recibir dichos servicios en otros lugares. Las personas que nacieron dentro de un hukou en grandes ciudades son elegibles para recibir mejores servicios educativos, de salud y de infraestructura. A no ser que un empleador patrocinado por el Estado solicite un cambio en el hukou de un trabajador, las personas que no poseen un hukou en las principales ciudades siguen enfrentándose a una barrera importante para acceder a las oportunidades económicas.

La figura 1 muestra la ubicación actual de los programas públicos de vivienda para las personas que poseen un hukou en Beijing. Al igual que ocurre en otros lugares del mundo, los proyectos de vivienda social se encuentran, como ya se ha mencionado, en las áreas más apartadas de la ciudad, donde los terrenos son menos caros pero, también, menos demandados. El subalquiler, otra de las características típicas de los proyectos de vivienda social, se encuentra muy difundido, pues los beneficiarios del programa cobran un alquiler a sus inquilinos por los apartamentos que les proporcionó el Estado.

Análisis del mercado subterráneo

En nuestro estudio hicimos uso de los listados detallados de viviendas subterráneas en alquiler que se encuentran disponibles en Ganji.com. Estos listados resultaron muy útiles para llevar a cabo el análisis, ya que el sitio estaba bien organizado y tenía la mayor cantidad de avisos. Utilizamos el término de búsqueda “地下室” o “unidad subterránea”, con lo que obtuvimos el alquiler mensual, la superficie en metros cuadrados, la ubicación específica, las comodidades y otras características de los apartamentos subterráneos, tales como el nivel de subsuelo. De los 7.312 anuncios que recabamos desde octubre de 2012 hasta septiembre de 2013, seleccionamos 3.677 entradas singulares con información completa. Tal como muestra la figura 1, estas unidades se encuentran bien distribuidas por toda la ciudad, lo que refleja el requisito de que todos los edificios de nueva construcción en Beijing posean un espacio subterráneo.

Resulta importante destacar que estos anuncios representan lo que probablemente es el sector de mayor poder adquisitivo del mercado inmobiliario subterráneo. Los propietarios que publican sus anuncios en Internet suelen tener un mayor nivel de educación y más recursos. Los anuncios normalmente vienen acompañados de fotografías, para demostrar la calidad relativamente alta de la vivienda. Además, la intención de los propietarios de publicar los anuncios sugiere que se sienten relativamente seguros en cuanto a la tenencia de las unidades.

La tabla 2 contiene estadísticas descriptivas de las 3.677 unidades habitacionales subterráneas estudiadas. La mediana de tamaño de las unidades es de 9,75 metros cuadrados, levemente menor que el mínimo de 10 metros cuadrados de Beijing y que la superficie habitacional general promedio per cápita (28,8 metros cuadrados por persona). Aun así, los apartamentos son por lo general más grandes que un dormitorio promedio para trabajadores, que sólo llega a 6,2 metros cuadrados (Xie y Zhou 2012).

El alquiler promedio mensual de 436 RMB (US$70) confirma que los apartamentos se encuentran en el sector de mayor poder adquisitivo de las viviendas para trabajadores migrantes. Según un estudio llevado a cabo por el gobierno en 2012, cerca del 48 por ciento de los trabajadores migrantes en Beijing paga menos de 300 RMB (US$48) por mes, un 27 por ciento paga entre 301 RMB y 500 RMB (US$48–US$80) y un 17 por ciento paga más de 1.000 RMB (US$160) (Xie y Zhou 2012). Es decir que estas unidades subterráneas en alquiler representan, por lo general, un tipo de vivienda con más valor para los trabajadores migrantes que los dormitorios comunes para trabajadores o las viviendas en pueblos urbanos.

En promedio, las unidades subterráneas se encuentran a menos de 11 kilómetros del centro de la ciudad, con una desviación estándar de 6,2 kilómetros, lo que las ubica definitivamente dentro de la Quinta Autopista de Circunvalación. Con estas ventajas de ubicación, los apartamentos ofrecen potencialmente costos más bajos de traslado ida y vuelta al trabajo, así como mejores oportunidades económicas. De manera similar, la distancia promedio a la estación de metro más cercana es de poco más de 1 kilómetro, lo que se considera una distancia caminable.

Cerca de un 50 por ciento de las unidades anunciadas se encuentran a uno o dos pisos por debajo del nivel del suelo. El 50 por ciento restante son semisubterráneas, como los denominados “apartamentos jardín” de los Estados Unidos, que tienen una pequeña ventana cerca del cielorraso de la habitación. Según nuestro análisis preliminar, el hecho de que la unidad estuviera a uno o dos niveles por debajo del suelo no presentaba ninguna diferencia estadística en cuanto al precio, habiendo considerado otras variables. Con respecto a las comodidades, cerca del 25 por ciento de los anuncios de las unidades indicaba que tenían calefacción, más de la mitad mencionaba la conectividad a Internet, aproximadamente el 25 por ciento señalaba la presencia de cámaras de vigilancia y menos de un 12,5 por ciento indicaba la existencia de guardias de seguridad.

Análisis de la dinámica de mercado

En nuestro estudio analizamos si la demanda en este submercado inusual de viviendas subterráneas es similar al mercado convencional sobre el suelo. En particular, la desventaja de vivir por debajo del nivel del suelo puede ser muy grande; además, este tipo de viviendas es, por lo general, tan pequeña que las demás variables estándar en los modelos de precios hedónicos pueden llegar a ser más pronunciadas o diferenciarse de alguna otra manera.

Nuestro análisis estadístico consistió en una progresión escalonada en la que se intentó ajustar las variables de la prueba a un modelo base que incluye las variables que la bibliografía ya considera significativas. Los resultados del análisis resultaron ser los previstos, ya que todas las variables fueron significativas y apuntaban en la misma dirección. Por ejemplo, el alquiler aumenta cerca del 3,3 por ciento por cada metro cuadrado en que se incrementa el tamaño de la unidad, y un 3,6 por ciento por cada kilómetro en que se reduce la distancia hasta el centro de la ciudad. El acceso al transporte también es significativo. La cercanía a una estación de metro aumenta el alquiler en 1,8 por ciento por kilómetro; y para cada estación de línea de metro en un radio de 800 metros, el alquiler aumenta un 2,8 por ciento.

Debido a que el desempeño de nuestro modelo de precios hedónicos fue el mismo que el de otros modelos, con las mismas variables principales significativas y en la misma dirección, el fenómeno de la vivienda subterránea es, evidentemente, un mercado. El surgimiento de este mercado sugiere que existe una fuerte demanda de viviendas en alquiler –especialmente entre las familias de bajos ingresos– que ni el mercado formal ni los programas públicos de vivienda pueden satisfacer. Este es un hecho evidente, en vista de que las normas sobre hukou no permiten a los trabajadores migrantes presentar solicitudes a los programas públicos de vivienda, y que se sabe que incluso los residentes de bajos ingresos de Beijing que poseen un hukou ocupan viviendas subterráneas.

Los resultados de nuestro análisis sugieren que la máxima prioridad de la población de bajos ingresos y a menudo migrante de Beijing es la proximidad al lugar de trabajo y al transporte. Vivir en habitaciones subterráneas merece la pena cuando la contrapartida es su ubicación céntrica. Además, al comparar los alquileres de estas unidades con los de las viviendas públicas, tal como muestra la tabla 1, observamos que, aunque los costos por metro cuadrado sean mayores, el alquiler total de la unidad subterránea es mucho menor (Hu y Hu 2012). Así, el mercado subterráneo satisface la demanda de aquellas personas con ingresos por debajo de los niveles a los que apuntan los programas de vivienda social.

Conclusiones

Las viviendas subterráneas representan un fenómeno de grandes proporciones en Beijing. En Internet encontramos miles de avisos de alquiler de apartamentos subterráneos, y esa cantidad seguía creciendo en el año 2013, a pesar de los desalojos. No obstante, el tamaño de este submercado no significa que deba ser incorporado a las políticas públicas.

Existen historias extraordinarias de personas que habitaban en tejados y en pozos de alcantarillado para poder vivir en el área central de Beijing. Las viviendas subterráneas son, con frecuencia, sólo otra alternativa desesperada a la que recurren los pobres en los centros urbanos para poder vivir y trabajar en las áreas urbanas donde no poseen hukou y, por ende, no tienen acceso a los servicios.

¿Cuánto puede una sociedad reducir el espacio habitable para que las ubicaciones urbanas sean accesibles? Esta pregunta ejercerá una presión cada vez mayor a medida que las densidades de las megaciudades asiáticas excedan los niveles aceptables de dignidad humana, lo que obligará a los responsables de elaborar políticas y a los diseñadores a pensar de manera más creativa sobre las reformas urbanas. Aunque las unidades subterráneas son, de hecho, más espaciosas que los dormitorios para trabajadores o estudiantes, el extraordinario desarrollo económico de China ha elevado las aspiraciones y expectativas de sus ciudadanos para obtener mejores condiciones de habitabilidad.

Debido a que la mayoría de los inquilinos son solteros o parejas sin hijos, y a que la tenencia es temporal (ya que no se prolonga por muchos años), en las políticas de vivienda debería tenerse en cuenta la necesidad de tener una vivienda para toda la vida, tanto para las personas que recién comienzan a desarrollarse en esta ciudad tan cara como para aquellas que sólo requieren una estancia temporal por motivos de salud, educación y otros.

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Únase a la conversación. Deje sus comentarios en www.lincolninst.edu/news-events/at-lincoln-house-blog.

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Sobre el autor

Annette M. Kim, Ph.D., es profesora asociada en la Escuela de Políticas Públicas Sol Price de la Universidad del Sur de California. Además, es directora de SLAB, el laboratorio de análisis espacial de la Escuela Price recientemente creado, dedicado a promover la visualización de las ciencias sociales para el servicio público por medio de la enseñanza, la investigación y la participación pública.

Referencias

BMBCAD (Oficina Municipal de Defensa Civil Aérea de Beijing). 15 de mayo de 1986. “关于改变结合民用建筑修建防空地下室规定的通知》的实施细则” (Cambios en las normas de implementación para construir refugios antiaéreos mediante su combinación con edificios civiles).

Hu, Hai-feng y Ji-ya Hu. 2012. “Overall Evaluation and Future Development Planning of Beijing Affordable Housing System During the Eleventh Five-Year Plan”. Beijing Social Science 1: 7–14.

Liu, Xiang, Maojun Wang, Jiabin Cai y Mengchen He. 2013. “An Analysis on the Spatial Structure of Non-Native Permanent Population of Beijing Metropolitan Area in 2000–2010”. Urban Development Studies 20(10): 86–93.

Xie, Xinmei y Le Zhou. 2012. “Study on Housing Demands of Migrant Workers in Key Industries in Beijing”. Documento presentado en las ponencias de la Conferencia Anual de Planificación Urbana de China, Beijing.

Xing, Fan. 2011. “北京清理地下空间提速 百万北漂可能无处寄居” (Beijing limpiará el espacio subterráneo. Un millón de personas tal vez no tengan adónde ir). Beijing Times, 14 de enero. http://news.qq.com/a/20110114/000529.htm