Topic: Pobreza e Inequidade

Land Equity for the Urban Poor

Sonia Pereira, Novembro 1, 1997

Increasing socio-economic and spatial disparities in Latin American cities have prompted a revival of interest in equity-oriented government policies to reduce those disparities. However, solutions to the major urban problems being faced today must go far beyond the implementation of inconsistent and narrowly defined actions. The solutions must ensure equity for all sectors of society. In too many places, entire neighborhoods are forced to exist under deplorable living conditions while government agencies seek to evict residents in the name of environmental protection. It is evident that urban legislation can no longer ignore the rights of people to have a place in which to live in security and dignity.

The critical impact of land inequity on the urban environment requires that the urban poor gain access to the technical information necessary to better negotiate their concerns with public officials. My research explores the role of environmental education in low-income communities in developing countries. Taking a perspective based on self-help capacity building, my goal is to develop programs to train community leaders at the grassroots level to deal more effectively with local land use conflicts and environmental risks.

Impacts of Land Inequity

Like many Latin American cities, Rio de Janeiro is strongly affected by prevailing poverty and environmental degradation. Complex factors are involved: economic instability, inequitable land ownership, short-sighted development policies, and a lack of a democratic system that provides for human rights and freedoms. In my view, the problems experienced by Rio de Janeiro during the last few decades are mainly a result of existing “apartheid” urban planning assumptions and a lack of political will to incorporate the popular sectors in land use policy making.

In the region of Baixada de Jacarepaguá-at the heart of the core expansion area of Rio de Janeiro-the extraordinary process of urban growth since the 1970s has provoked dramatic changes in the landscape, as well as a variety of environmental problems. Amidst the spectacular natural beauty of lagoon ecosystems, mangrove forests and wetlands, the region remains home to a large population of urban poor who live in favelas-shanty communities resulting from largely uncontrolled urbanization of public land.

During the 1980s and early 1990s, the region enjoyed an unprecedented development boom that has fostered unsustainable patterns of land use. Discrimination against the poor inhabitants and inequalities in landownership allowed landowners and speculators to capitalize on the boom by formally obtaining titles and subdividing the land. In addition, a select group of private builders injected themselves into the local scene with multiple court permits to develop the region for high-income residential condominiums, commercial establishments and industrial enterprises.

Increasing pressures on the land snowballed into a wide range of protests between the popular sectors and the powerful land developers, posing the threat of forced eviction of the poor inhabitants. The accumulated discontent against the government for failing to control land speculation and ensure protective legislation created an extremely dangerous situation. Violence and persecution claimed the lives of 30 community leaders, presidents of local community associations, their family members and relatives. The murders were carried out by what are known in the region as “extermination squads,” and no criminal investigation has taken place.

The Vicious Cycle of Poverty and Environmental Degradation

Since poverty and environmental degradation are interdependent, it is appropriate to think of environmental concerns in terms of social justice. My research revolves around the problems of inequality and the environmental risks faced by the residents of the Via Park village-an informal settlement located in the region of Baixada de Jacarepaguá. A basic question arising from this research is to what extent can improved access to land equity actually contribute to mitigate the factors that encourage environmental degradation. By connecting land use issues to the learning process of environmental education, the research demonstrates that environmental degradation is a recurring phenomenon manifested in the inequitable ways land has been used and distributed in the region.

Via Park village has been caught in a serious land use struggle since the 1970s, when urban development began to impact many traditional fishing communities in the area. Builders were eager to lobby the government to break the fishermen’s land tenure system, which was enforced by law, and thereby turn the land over to market forces. In the 1980s, the area was designated a public reserve for environmental preservation, enshrined in Article 225 of the Brazilian Constitution (1988). Since the village was located on protected land, the city’s planning authorities then argued that the Via Park residents had no legitimate claims of ownership.

Living in an atmosphere of fear and at mercy of the land developers and speculators who continued to flourish, the Via Park residents started illegally subdividing and selling small parcels of land to new settlers. The growth of the poor population and the concentration of land ownership and speculation contributed to the expansion of informal land markets into nearby low-income communities.

Underlying these practices was a more complex system of commercial transactions and civil relations governing the invasion of vacant lands, as well as the division and sale of plots. Throughout Rio de Janeiro, land development through informal channels is the predominant “territorial pact” by which disadvantaged local groups have been able to gain access to land and housing. At the same time, agents from the “formal world” have developed political arrangements to support and take advantage of existing informal land markets.

It was in this context that a program for grassroots environmental improvement was conceived and eventually implemented in Via Park village. However, given the residents’ long history of exclusion-including threats of forced eviction-they remained suspicious. It became clear that successful program implementation would depend on managerial strategies based on an integrated vision of the geographic/ecological and social/cultural environment.

If the dilemma of poverty and environmental degradation is to be overcome, then the task of improving the environment must be shown to be compatible with the struggle for land equity. This innovative approach toward environmental education differs from traditional methodology, which is generally more concerned with simply introducing physical changes to the environment. The key here is to focus on the conditions that are favorable for the development and exercise of a sense of “community belonging”-a tangible expression of shared sentiments, values and identities where land is understood not only as a component of wealth, but as a common settled place invested with symbolic meanings.

Lessons of Via Park Village

While there is no single solution to the social and environmental vulnerability of the urban poor living in the Via Park village, their experience does offer some insights. One alternative suggests creating “urban natural reserves” integrated into the community where those threatened with forced eviction are encouraged to maintain their traditional lifestyles. In exchange, government authorities at all levels would accept the obligation to promote land equity, giving security of tenure and protection to those forced by circumstances to live in informal settlements.

Aspects of the environmental education program initiated in the Via Park village are applicable to other Latin American cities. The fundamental principle is based on insuring respect for the inherent identity of the community. The experience of the Via Park residents demonstrates that local action can contribute to consolidating a socio-political struggle for land equity with protection of the environment. This is in line with current thinking about land use and environmental management, which suggests an integrated approach that acknowledges the leadership role of the local residents.

The Via Park case reveals that a routine excuse being used to justify evictions is “protecting the environment.” In other words, the urban poor most often accused of being the primary protagonists of environmental degradation are in reality the greatest victims. For the 450 residents of the Via Park village, the trauma of being forcibly evicted from their homes will never be overcome. Five people, including two children and one woman, lost their lives in the confrontation. The Via Park village, now destroyed by bulldozers, still reminds us that hope for land equity lies in community solidarity, effective governance and democracy.

Sonia Pereira is a visiting fellow of the Lincoln Institute. She is also completing her Ph.D. thesis from the Institute of Earth Sciences of the Federal University in Rio de Janeiro, with support from a Fulbright scholarship. An environmental lawyer, biologist, social psychologist and activist on behalf of human rights, she has been widely recognized for her work on environmental protection for low-income communities in Brazil. She is a Citizen of the World Laureate (World Peace University, 1992) and a Global 500 Laureate (United Nations Environment Programme-UNEP, 1996).

The Property Tax and the Fortunes of Older Industrial Cities

Barry Bluestone and Chase M. Billingham, Janeiro 1, 2008

Most people are not particularly fond of paying taxes of any sort, but the discontent with one particular type of public levy, the local property tax, is gaining momentum across the country. Disgruntled homeowners are demanding that governors and mayors find alternative methods to raise revenue in order to relieve their own property tax burden.

Decades ago this discontent led to such tax limitation measures as Proposition 13 in California and Proposition 2½ in Massachusetts. More recently, this movement has been driven by sharply rising property tax levies in many cities and suburbs as a result of the extraordinary appreciation in property values over the past few years. The high visibility of the property tax, which in contrast to sales and income taxes is often paid annually in one or two large installments, makes this form of revenue generation an attractive target for taxpayer antipathy.

Message from the President

Protecting a Share of the Housing Market
George W. McCarthy, Julho 1, 2015

People who work with me are often surprised by the extent to which my philosophical canon derives from low-budget offbeat films, typically from the 1980s. When in need of wisdom, I frequently turn to the teachings of Repo Man or, for this essay, Terry Gilliam’s allegorical masterpiece Time Bandits. In the movie, a group of public workers are employed by the Supreme Being to fill holes in the time-space continuum left from the haste of creating the universe in seven days: “It was a bit of a botched job, you see.”

Like the Time Bandits, policy makers are often tasked to fill holes—actual potholes in roadways, or more theoretical holes that are the artifacts of dysfunctional private markets. One big hole that policy has struggled for decades to fill is the inadequate supply of affordable housing. For example, housing economists in the United States have become quite adept at tracking the size of the hole, which has only become harder to fill since the federal government committed to address it as a national policy priority beginning with the Housing Act of 1949, part of President Harry S. Truman’s Fair Deal.

Perhaps our collective failure to solve the affordable housing deficit over the last 66 years stems from wrongheaded analysis of the problem, and the conclusion that market-based solutions can be designed to solve the mismatch between the supply of affordable housing and demand for it. In his 1949 State of the Union address, President Truman noted that to fill the needs of millions of families with inadequate housing, “Most of the houses we need will have to be built by private enterprise, without public subsidy.”

To support this claim, permit me a short departure into market theory. From the now-preferred mathematical approach to economic analysis, a market is simply a system of partial differential equations that is solved by a single price. The partial differential equations capture the complex decisions made by consumers and producers of goods, reconciling tastes, preferences, and budgets of consumers with the technical complexities of producing goods to arrive at a price that clears the market by settling all transactions that suppliers and consumers of goods are willing to make.

Acclaimed economists Arrow, Debreu, and McKenzie proved the theoretical existence of a single set of prices that can simultaneously solve for the “general equilibrium” of all markets in a national or global economy. One important aspect of this Nobel Prize–winning contribution was the observation that a unique price cleared each market—one market, one price. There was no expectation that a single price could maintain equilibrium in two markets. But this is the fundamental flaw of the housing market—it is actually two markets, not one. Housing markets supply both shelter for local consumption and a globally tradable investment good made possible by broad capital markets that serve global investors. This dual-market status used to be more descriptive of owner-occupied housing, but, with the proliferation of real estate investment trusts (REITs), rental markets are now in the same boat.

Markets for consumption goods behave very differently than investment markets, responding to different “fundamentals.” On the supply side, prices for consumption goods are dictated by production costs, while prices in investment markets are dictated by expected returns. On the demand side, such things as tastes and preferences, household incomes, and demographics determine the price of housing as shelter. Investment demand for housing is dictated by factors like liquidity and liquidity preferences of investors, expected returns on alternative investments, or interest rates.

In developed countries, global capital markets and the market for shelter collide locally with little chance of reconciliation. Local households compete with global investors to decide the character and quantity of housing that is produced. In markets that attract global investment, plenty of housing is produced, but shortages of affordable units are acute, and worsen over time. This is because a huge share of new housing is produced to maximize investment return, not to meet the needs of the local population for shelter. For example, there is no shortage of global investment willing to participate in developing $100 million apartments in New York City. But affordable housing, being much harder to finance, is in short supply. And in markets that have been abandoned by global capital, house prices fall below production costs, and surplus housing accumulates and decays. In extreme cases such as Detroit, market order can only be restored by demolishing thousands of abandoned homes and buildings.

Perhaps it is time that we reconsider the analysis that led President Truman, and thousands of housing policy makers after him, to conclude that one could forge market-based solutions to the challenge of sheltering a country’s population. Truman concluded that “By producing too few rental units and too large a proportion of high-priced houses, the building industry is rapidly pricing itself out of the market.” But Truman was thinking about the market for shelter, not investment. It is remarkable to note that the number of housing units supplied in developed countries such as the United States significantly exceeds the number of households. In 2010, the U.S. Census estimated that there were 131 million units of housing in the country and 118 million households—one in seven housing units were vacant. It is even more shocking to note that in the United States this oversupply of housing characterizes every metropolitan market in the country—even metropolitan markets with extreme shortages of affordable housing. In 2010, 8.5 percent of housing units were vacant in Greater Boston, 9.1 percent in the San Francisco Bay area, and 10.2 percent in Washington, DC. The problem is that many households have insufficient incomes to afford the housing that is available.

In the end, rather than fill the holes in the fabric of time and space, the Time Bandits decided to take advantage of them to “get bloody stinking rich.” The bandits sought to capitalize on celestial imperfections in the same way that global investors seek returns from short-term market dislocations. To illustrate the dangers of naked speculation in unregulated markets, consider an apocryphal tale from a very different market. In 1974, heavy rains during planting season in Bangladesh suggested that rice might be in short supply at harvest time. In anticipation of these shortages, rice prices started to rise. Savvy commodity speculators realized that there would be a good return on any rice that was held off the market. Despite the fact that the actual harvest produced a bumper crop, the interaction between market expectations and market manipulations by commodity investors produced one of the worst famines of the 20th century—with an estimated 1.5 million famine-related fatalities. The famine was not the result of real food shortages. The collision of the market for goods and the market for speculative investment priced rice out of the reach of the local populations, with landless families suffering mortality at three times the rate of families with land.

Perhaps shelter and food are too important to be left to unregulated markets to allocate. In light of the damage that the conflict between the market for goods and the market for investment can inflict on local populations, perhaps public policy should focus on protecting a share of the market—and the public—from the ravages of speculation. In this issue, we describe some nascent efforts to produce permanently affordable housing by insulating it from speculation—through community land trusts, inclusionary housing, and housing cooperatives. Miriam Axel-Lute and Dana Hawkins-Simons discuss the mechanics of organizing local community land trusts. Loren Berlin describes efforts to preserve affordable housing in the form of manufactured homes and to promote permanent affordability of that stock through the conversion of manufactured housing communities to limited equity cooperatives.

On more cautionary notes: Cynthia Goytia discusses the ways that low-income communities circumvent housing regulations that drive up housing costs to produce their own affordable but substandard shelter in informal settlements around Latin American cities; and Li Sun and Zhi Liu discuss the tenuous status of one-quarter of urban Chinese households that purchased affordable shelter with uncertain property rights on collectively owned land at the rapidly developing edge of cities and in “urban villages,” former rural settlements now surrounded by modern construction. As capital markets deepen in these countries, the competition between housing as investment good and housing as shelter will likely exacerbate informality in Latin American cities and make property rights of these Chinese families more precarious. After almost seven decades of failed efforts to get private markets to meet populations’ needs for affordable shelter, it might be time to develop, and to export, another approach that is based on a more realistic understanding of the complexity of housing and capital markets.

In Search of New Life for Smaller Cities

Chris Kelley, Março 1, 1996

A proud outpost of America’s Industrial Revolution, Johnstown, Pennsylvania, survived the Great Flood of 1889, when a 40-mph wave swept the city into the Conemaugh River. Johnstown rebuilt itself into a dynamic city teeming with factories and steel mills. Yet what the flood couldn’t kill, a changing economy nearly has.

In the space of a generation, Johnstown has hemorrhaged 40 percent of its population and seen its job base disintegrate–joining the growing ranks of U.S. industrial cities teetering on the brink of terminal illness. They are becoming places without purpose, experts say, ill-prepared for a new economic era except as recipients of transfer payments and warehouses for the poor, the aged, the infirm and, in big cities, the violently deviant. “Johnstown is a place where wealth has moved out, where there is no middle class and where the town frantically searches for a magic solution to stay alive,” said anthropologist Bruce Williams of the University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown.

As the Information Age unfolds, urban scholars see a disturbing new set of forces converging viselike on Johnstown and many U.S. cities. While the problems of a New York City or a Detroit command popular attention, smaller cities such as Johnstown–those with populations of 25,000 to 100,000–might be suffering most from wrenching economic changes. No longer are place and distance such vital factors. The new economy is driven by technological changes that allow those with means to live and work largely where they want. New suburbs are still the number one choice for both business and residential developers seeking large plots of cheap land.

Struggling for Relevance

Many old industrial cities, meanwhile, struggle for relevance. Their residents lack the training for–and access to–the modern work force. New offices and industries require less labor. Isolation and segregation of the urban poor feed a cycle of despair. Advantages such as a coast, river or rail line matter less. With dwindling public investment and little or no market for their services or products, scores of these older cities can’t nurse themselves back to health.

“If a city lacks the basics for economic viability, what does it have left except some type of massive support by the federal government?” said Dr. Irving Baker, a retired political scientist at Southern Methodist University. “Those cities . . . are expendable,” he said.

This phenomenon links aging central cities, decaying inner-ring suburbs and exploding Mexican border cities. One of every five U.S. cities larger than 25,000 people has a poverty rate greater than 20 percent–a prime symptom of urban decay, an analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data indicates. Dallas and other Sun Belt cities are repeating the trajectory of distressed Northern cities, where poverty rates soared and the concentration of poor worsened.

As the debate continues over Washington’s shifting budget role, some experts wonder whether one result might be disposable cities, like the 19th-century ghost towns that predated federal bailouts. Solutions seem elusive, the experts agree, because neither government-run urban renewal nor private enterprise alone appears equal to the task.

“I think we are in a struggle for America’s heart right now,” said Peter C. Goldmark, president of the Rockefeller Foundation, whose programs support efforts to revitalize communities. “Because I don’t think America can live if its cities are dying.” Neal Peirce, an urban affairs commentator and writer, noted: “As I see it, we have a civilization to defend. If we really come to the point of writing places off as cities and neighborhoods of no return, we have reached the point of giving up what made this country the civilization I think many of us really have much pride being in.”

Disturbing Trends in Distressed Cities

Analysis by The Dallas Morning News–based on more than 125 interviews, a review of hundreds of reports and creation of a computer-generated index of 148 distressed communities–documented a number of alarming urban trends:

The United States remains an urban nation. But of all urban dwellers, 60 percent now live in suburbs — not in the nation’s 522 central cities.

Concentrations of the poor are increasing in all cities, including Sun Belt cities. In 1968, 30 percent of the nation’s poor lived in cities. Now the figure is 42 percent.

Jobs are leaving cities in massive numbers and are not being replaced. About 70 percent of new jobs, most requiring extensive technical training, are being created outside cities. Although the number of poor Americans dropped in 1994 for the first time in four years, the gap between rich and poor continued to widen as low-skill, low-wage jobs disappeared, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.

Many older cities are burdened with foul physical sites created for a smokestack economy that no longer exists. Mayor Freeman Bosley said St. Louis’ dramatic population decline–a 50 percent loss since 1950–relates directly to his city’s inability to reclaim contaminated properties, known as brownfields. “Right now, there is no way the city of St. Louis can attract business to abandoned industrial sites,” he told a congressional panel recently. “The existing cleanup standards and related costs exceed the property’s value, and there are no compensating incentives.”

The revival of rural America comes at the expense of many cities. Following a decade of decline, three in four rural counties gained population between 1990 and 1994. Most of the gain was caused by migration from cities, not urban encroachment.

Few places have been able to reverse these trends once decline sets in. Said Brian Berry, an internationally recognized professor of urban geography at the University of Texas at Dallas: “To be blunt and brutal about it, there’s very little that policymakers can do [about these cities] short of bringing in the aspirins and making people feel a little better.”

The success stories of recent years have enjoyed some attractive geographic asset or been the target of a sustained intentional effort. Hoboken, New Jersey, once a rundown manufacturing hub, capitalized on its waterfront view of the Manhattan skyline. It is now a trendy suburb for young couples with children. Cleveland, Pittsburgh and St. Louis have stabilized after shedding population for decades. Yet even though each has poured tens of millions into successful downtown revitalization efforts, many neighborhoods remain deeply troubled.

Smaller cities such as Johnstown dominated The News’ list of distressed communities. “Small and medium-sized cities don’t have the great urban assets to draw on,” said David Rusk, former mayor of Albuquerque, New Mexico, and now an urban consultant in Washington, D.C. “They don’t have the legacy of parks, museums and recreational facilities that big cities have. And, most of all, they don’t have the old downtown core.”

What can be done to assist these communities? Gary Orfield, a professor of education and social policy at Harvard University, said, “If I were a mayor, my number one effort would be to try to help people to understand how serious these problems are and to convince the people in the rest of the society that if they don’t share in the solution, they are going to be sharing in a much, much more radical problem in the future.”

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Chris Kelley is urban affairs writer at The Dallas Morning News. This article is excerpted from a four-part series titled “Whither the Cities?” which ran December 3-6, 1995. A series reprint is available by calling The News at 1-800-431-0010, ext. 8472, or on the Internet at http://www.pic.net/tdmn/tdmn.html. Kelley participated in the Lincoln Institute’s 1995 Land Policy Forum for Journalists.

Housing Inequality in Chinese Cities

How Important is Hukou?
Mark Duda and Bingqin Li, Janeiro 1, 2008

Although vast differences in standard of living exist among the native-born residents of Chinese cities, the distinction between all urban natives and rural migrants runs deeper. It is, in fact, the fundamental social division in Chinese cities for several reasons, including labor market segmentation that sees migrants doing dirty, dangerous, and low-paying work; institutional rules that favor urban residents in everything from health care access to university entrance exams; and cultural ideas about the backwardness of rural areas and rural people.

In the housing sector, it is therefore not surprising that migrants’ housing quality is quite low in an absolute sense and relative to that of other urban residents. What is less clear is the source of these differences. Research that we recently completed for the Lincoln Institute leads us to question the conventional wisdom that institutional rules linked to the hukou system are primarily responsible for the differential (Li, Duda, and Peng 2007). We believe that hukou status is only one of several factors responsible for migrants’ differential housing outcomes, and that the research literature has not spent enough time assessing the relative importance of these factors. While not definitive, our empirical results provide several reasons to question a hukou-centric modelof the sources of urban housing inequality.

Nuevo informe sobre enfoque en políticas de suelo

Vivienda inclusiva
Outubro 1, 2015

Vivienda inclusiva: La creación y el mantenimiento de comunidades equitativas

Por Rick Jacobus

En diferentes ciudades, como Seattle, San Francisco, Chicago, y Portland, Maine, se ha desatado un debate sobre la vivienda inclusiva, es decir, el requisito de que los desarrolladores reserven un porcentaje de los nuevos desarrollos residenciales para viviendas asequibles. Algunos sostienen que esta política desalienta el desarrollo o, con alegación más polémica que podría llegar a la Corte Suprema, que constituye una amenaza a los derechos de propiedad. Mientras tanto, el alcalde de la ciudad de Nueva York, Bill de Blasio, se enfrenta a críticas desde ambas partes: que su propuesta de vivienda inclusiva va demasiado lejos, o que no es suficiente.

En este nuevo informe titulado “Vivienda inclusiva: Creación y mantenimiento de comunidades equitativas”, Rick Jacobus separa la realidad de los mitos y traza el camino a los gestores de políticas, mostrando cómo la vivienda inclusiva puede usarse de manera eficaz para reducir la segregación económica.

“En las ciudades con mercados inmobiliarios muy activos, el aumento de los precios de la vivienda, obliga a los residentes de clase media y de bajos ingresos a alejarse de los empleos mejor remunerados, del transporte confiable, de las buenas escuelas y de los barrios seguros”, sostiene George W. McCarthy, presidente y director ejecutivo del Instituto Lincoln. “La vivienda inclusiva por sí sola no solucionará nuestra crisis de la vivienda, pero es uno de los pocos baluartes que tenemos para contrarrestar los efectos del aburguesamiento, y únicamente si preservamos las unidades que tanto nos cuesta construir”.

Mediante un análisis de la bibliografía sobre el tema y casos de estudio, Rick Jacobus, de Street Level Urban Impact Advisors, ofrece soluciones para superar las principales barreras políticas, técnicas, legales y prácticas que enfrenta todo programa de vivienda inclusiva para tener éxito.

“Más de 500 comunidades han utilizado las políticas de vivienda inclusiva con el fin de mantener la vitalidad y diversidad de los barrios en transición, y hasta ahora hemos aprendido mucho”, señala Jacobus. “Según investigaciones realizadas, si los programas se diseñan e implementan concienzudamente, pueden llegar a ser una herramienta valiosa en tiempos en que la vivienda inclusiva se necesita desesperadamente”.

En particular, el autor se refiere en este informe a la preocupación de que la vivienda inclusiva podría impedir nuevas construcciones debido a que el desarrollo tendría un rendimiento económico menor. Según el informe, muchas ciudades han evitado dicho impacto otorgando flexibilidad a los desarrolladores para cumplir con las normas y ofreciendo incentivos, como la posibilidad de construir unidades con mayor densidad.

Otras conclusiones y recomendaciones clave que surgen del informe son las siguientes:

  • La rápida construcción de viviendas a valor de mercado en realidad potencia la necesidad de más viviendas inclusivas, lo que cambia el carácter de los barrios.
  • Los programas de vivienda inclusiva se han impugnado a nivel judicial, pero pueden diseñarse de manera cuidadosa para minimizar los riesgos legales.
  • El seguimiento de los programas mediante la ejecución de las normas y la administración es fundamental. En algunas comunidades se han creado miles de hogares asequibles que, más tarde, desaparecen a consecuencia de ventas posteriores.

Durante muchos años, el Instituto Lincoln ha desarrollado estrategias para apoyar la vivienda permanentemente asequible, mediante, por ejemplo, el establecimiento de fideicomisos de suelo comunitarios y otros acuerdos de capital compartido. Estas medidas se han tomado teniendo en cuenta la actual crisis de acceso a la vivienda existente en muchas ciudades. Los precios estratosféricos de los precios de alquiler y compra de viviendas en los mercados inmobiliarios muy activos han ido desplazando a los antiguos residentes y cambiando el carácter de ciudades y barrios.

Para encargar ejemplares: http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/3583_Inclusionary-Housing.

Rick Jacobus, es experto nacional en vivienda inclusiva y en acceso a la propiedad de viviendas asequibles. Es director principal de Street Level Urban Impact Advisors (StreetLevelAdvisors.com). Fundó Cornerstone Partnership y actualmente es asesor estratégico en Cornerstone.

Informalidad, pobreza urbana y precios de la tierra

Martim O. Smolka, Janeiro 1, 2003

Una versión más actualizada de este artículo está disponible como parte del capítulo 2 del libro Perspectivas urbanas: Temas críticos en políticas de suelo de América Latina.

El precio excesivamente alto de la tierra urbanizada en América Latina es una de varias explicaciones del grado y la persistencia de los mercados informales de tierra. Contrario a las creencias populares, la informalidad es costosa y por lo tanto no es lo mejor y ni siquiera es una alternativa ventajosa para combatir la pobreza, pero por lo general es la única salida para las familias urbanas pobres. Una política más consistente para reducir la informalidad, y así reducir la pobreza, debería ser al menos neutra o aportar a la reducción de los altos precios de la tierra.

La Pobreza Sola no puede Explicar la Informalidad

Aunque el mapa de la ilegalidad urbana se parezca al de la pobreza, la extensión y la persistencia de la informalidad no puede ser explicada solamente por la pobreza. No todos los ocupantes de los asentamientos informales son pobres, tal como muchos estudios empíricos en América Latina lo han demostrado en los últimos años. La tasa de ocupación irregular de la tierra es mucho más alto que el aumento del número de familias nuevas pobres. En Brasil, por ejemplo, el número total de residentes en “favelas” ha aumentado cinco veces más rápido que el de residentes pobres, y una tendencia similar se observa en las más grandes ciudades Latinoamericanas.

Este crecimiento espectacular de los asentamientos informales ha ocurrido en las periferias y por densificación de áreas “consolidadas” irregulares urbanas, pese a que los índices de natalidad y de migrantes campo-ciudad hayan caído sustancialmente y el porcentaje de ciudadanos pobres haya permanecido relativamente estable. Otras explicaciones de este crecimiento informal incluyen la falta de programas de vivienda social, la inversión pública inadecuada en infraestructura urbana y, por último aunque no menos importante, debido a la cruda realidad de que los mecanismos informales son rentables para quienes los promueven.

El Alto Costo de la Tierra Urbanizada

La economía convencional formula que los precios de libre mercado reflejan el nivel en el que la capacidad y la disposición a pagar de un comprador coincide con la capacidad y la disposición a vender de un proveedor, pero esto no garantiza que se suplan las necesidades sociales. Es decir, el mercado para la tierra urbanizada puede estar funcionando bien mientras que muchas familias (incluso no pobres) no pueden acceder a él, y mientras algunos terrenos urbanos son mantenidos vacantes intencionalmente.

En las periferias de muchas ciudades Latinoamericanas, el precio de un metro cuadrado (m2) de tierra urbanizada, desarrollado por agentes privados, puede variar entre US$32 Y US$172. Estos niveles son cercanos en términos absolutos a los encontrados en el mundo desarrollado, donde los ingresos per-cápita son típicamente 7 a 10 veces mayores. Hasta una familia encima de la línea de pobreza que ahorre el 20% de su ingreso mensual (US$200) necesita ahorrar de 12 a 15 años para adquirir un lote urbanizado de 150 m2. Estos indicadores sugieren que la dificultad de acceso a la tierra urbana pueda ser uno de los factores que contribuyen a la pobreza.

El precio de la tierra urbana, como en cualquier mercado, es determinado por la oferta y demanda. El suministro de tierra depende de la cantidad habilitada (producida) por año, la cantidad que es retenida, y la intensidad de uso de la existente. La demanda depende de la tasa anual de formación de nuevos hogares, ajustada por su ingreso y/o poder adquisitivo, sus preferencias y los precios de otros artículos en sus presupuestos. Es difícil realizar una explicación completa de todos los factores que afectan el comportamiento de precios de tierra (Ver Smolka 2002), pero basta mencionar ciertos determinantes emblemáticos para entender algunas aparentes idiosincrasias del funcionamiento de mercados de tierra urbanos en América Latina.

Desde el lado de la oferta, los impuestos prediales, la mayor fuente potencial para financiar la producción de tierra urbana, es ridículamente bajo. Típicamente representan menos que el 0.5 por ciento del PIB, comparado al 3 y 4 por ciento en EE UU y Canadá. En general hay la sensación de que América Latina invierte poco en infraestructura y servicios comparado con su PIB per cápita. Los sustanciales incrementos observados en el valor de tierra, como resultado de inversiones en infraestructura urbana y servicios, generalmente son ignorados como una fuente para financiar tales inversiones, debido a mecanismos débiles de captura de la valorización (Smolka y Furtado 2001).

Además, la disposición de considerables áreas de tierra es controlada por agentes que no siguen la racionalidad económica (por ejemplo, las fuerzas armadas, la iglesia o entidades estatales como los ferrocarriles). De otro lado, la limitada disponibilidad de tierra habilitada es a menudo sometida a normas urbanísticas elitistas, diseñadas para “proteger” esos vecindarios haciéndolos inaccesibles para familias de bajos ingresos.

En el lado de la demanda, muchas familias, incluso con buenos ingresos, trabajan informalmente y son excluidos del mercado por no tener las credenciales requeridas por los bancos para otorgar créditos. La necesidad de auto-financiar la producción de la vivienda alarga el tiempo entre la adquisición y la ocupación del lote, aumentando tanto el costo de la financiación como la demanda global por tierra. Además, la herencia de alta inflación, mercados de capital subdesarrollados o inaccesibles, y la limitada cobertura del sistema de seguridad social, son responsables de alimentar una cultura establecida entre sectores de bajos ingresos de usar terrenos como reserva de valor y como un mecanismo popular de capitalización, lo cual también presiona la demanda de tierra. En otras palabras, retener terrenos rústicos y especular con tierra no es una conducta exclusiva de los sectores altos ingresos.

Los precios de los Lotes Informales

Más allá de estos argumentos convencionales acerca de la oferta y demanda, hay que tener en cuenta la interdependencia de los mercados formales e informales de tierra, como factores que contribuyen a su alto precio. Específicamente, el alto precio de la tierra urbanizada en el mercado formal, parece afectar los relativamente altos precios de los loteos informales, y viceversa.

Los precios de tierra revelan la diferencia que un comprador tiene que pagar para evitar caer en una situación peor (esto significa más lejos del trabajo, menos o peores servicios públicos, menos calidad ambiental, y otros). Entonces, si la “mejor” alternativa es un lote en un asentamiento informal, cabe esperar un precio mayor en los terrenos que si tienen servicios, lo cual también refleja el valor de los títulos legales que ostentan estos terrenos. De otra parte, si el precio mínimo de la tierra urbanizada (la tierra bruta más el costo de urbanización) sigue siendo inaccesible, entonces cualquier tipo de tierra que la familia pueda conseguir le representa una mejor alternativa. Esta alternativa puede variar desde el loteo más alejado, la invasión con la mediación de un urbanizador pirata o de movimientos organizados (ambos envuelven comisiones y otro tipo de pagos), hasta el más predominante mercado de tierra, consistente en subdivisiones irregulares de grandes parcelas en pequeños lotes con servicios precarios.

El precio de la tierra en los mercados informales es, por consiguiente, más alto que el precio de tierra bruta, pero normalmente menor que la suma de la tierra bruta más el costo de habilitarla. Al mismo tiempo, el precio tiende a ser menor (aunque no necesariamente por metro cuadrado) que el precio mínimo de la tierra completamente habilitada y comercializada en los mercados formales. En efecto, el mercado aprecia las formas más “flexibles” para acceder a la tierra, como por ejemplo tamaños de lote más pequeños que el mínimo legal, o la construcción sin respetar los códigos de construcción, o incluso la posibilidad de vender la azotea de una casa como espacio construible.

La mayoría de las familias de más bajos ingresos no escogen un asentamiento informal porque les brinde el mejor precio, sino simplemente porque con frecuencia solo tienen esa alternativa. “La decisión” de adquirir un lote informal es de todas maneras costosa. Estimativos conservadores obtenidos de una encuesta informal en diez grandes ciudades de Latinoamérica, muestran que el precio promedio de la tierra en loteos comercializados ilegalmente es de US$27 por metro cuadrado (Ver Tabla 1).

Tabla 1. Precios y rentabilidad en mercados formales e informales de tierra (US$)

Mercado Formal Mercado Informal

1. Tierra rural asignada para uso urbano $4 $4

2. Costo de urbanización Mínima = $5 Máximo = $25

3. Precio final en el mercado $27 $70

4. Beneficio sobre capital avanzado= (3-1-2)/(1+2) 200% 141%

El renglón de las utilidades (4) explica al menos en parte la cuestión (paradójica en apariencia): ¿Por qué, a pesar de los significativos márgenes de ganancia del mercado informal, uno encuentra tan poco interés en desarrollar tierra por parte del sector privado? Como lo indica la Tabla 1, la producción de tierra informal es más rentable que la producción formal. Incluso el resultado para el mercado formal está bastante subestimado, puesto que hay altos riesgos asociados con costos financieros, de seguridad y mercadeo, y otros costos incurrido por el desarrollador que no afectan al urbanizador informal. Estos datos también ayudan a explicar por qué la formalidad genera informalidad, y desnudan el hecho de que las ventajas de los arreglos informales no son necesariamente percibidas por los ocupantes de bajos ingresos, sino por los urbanizadores informales.

Efectos Inesperados de la Normalización

Miremos ahora la cuestión de las políticas utilizadas en esta materia. Dada la aparente imposibilidad o impracticabilidad de adoptar alguna otra política, la noción prevaleciente ha sido tolerar las “soluciones” informales para posibilitar el acceso a la tierra y después normalizar o “desmarginalizar” los asentamientos, como algo más barato en el largo plazo para los fondos públicos, y mejor para los ocupantes de bajos ingresos (Lincoln Institute 2002).

El argumento de las finanzas públicas consiste en que el arreglo existente es más barato porque se apoya en inversiones privadas, relevando las agencias públicas de responsabilidades y gastos que, en caso contrario, se entenderían como parte del “derecho a la ciudad”. Esta visión es cuestionable por dos razones. Primero, las condiciones físicas de las habitaciones son a menudo inaceptables como asentamiento humano, pese a lo imaginativas que resultan las soluciones informales bajo condiciones extremas. Los bajos estándares de utilización de la tierra y la alta densidad en estos asentamientos son tolerados solamente porque el daño ya ha sido hecho. Segundo, en relación con la infraestructura, algunas de alternativas promisorias han mostrado recientemente un pobre comportamiento y demandan gastos excesivos de mantenimiento.

Los impactos sobre las familias de bajos ingresos son también peores de lo esperado. No sólo los precios de la tierra son bastante altos sino que conllevan costos adicionales: aquellos sin una dirección de residencia (por vivir en un asentamiento irregular) a menudo son discriminados cuando buscan un trabajo o servicios; los alquileres como porcentaje del valor de las propiedades son más altos que los cánones observados en los mercados formales; el acceso al agua en camiones u otra fuente temporal resulta más costoso que por acueducto; y el costo de la inseguridad es mayor por vivir en un ambiente más violento.

Las políticas de normalización, evaluadas en un contexto amplio, pueden estar contribuyendo a agravar el problema que buscan remediar. En otras palabras, el enfoque curativo de estas políticas puede tener, al contrario, efectos perversos y contraproducentes , como se anotó antes.

Señales de Precios

La expectativa de que un área va a ser normalizada le permite al urbanizador subir el precio de los lotes. A menudo el comprador obtiene un terreno con evidencia escrita de que el desarrollador no tiene todavía los servicios requeridos por las normas de urbanísticas. Al mismo tiempo el desarrollador le promete que tan pronto como se vendan suficientes terrenos, los servicios y la infraestructura serán instalados, incluso a pesar de que esas promesas poco se cumplen. En el mejor de los casos una relación de complicidad se establece entre el comprador y el vendedor. En el peor, que es por desgracia el más común, el comprador es engañado en cuanto a la existencia de servicios, como por ejemplo tubos en el terreno que el urbanizador señala como parte de la infraestructura. Otros problemas en estos arreglos que pueden lesionar a los residentes pobres son títulos dudosos, formas de pago que esconden los intereses a pagar y detalles contractuales imprecisos y confusos.

Como en cualquier otro segmento del mercado de tierras, el precio refleja o absorbe las expectativas del uso futuro del terreno. El sector informal no es la excepción. Entre mayor sea la expectativa de que un terreno sin servicios los va a tener luego, tanto viniendo del urbanizador o, como es más frecuente, del gobierno a través de algún programa de normalización, más alto será el precio al cual se transa el terreno.

Normalización como una Atracción para Más Subnormalidad

Las investigaciones sobre las fechas de llegada de los habitantes de los asentamientos informales, sugieren que en muchos casos la mayoría de las personas se mudaron justo cuando se anunció o implementó un programa de normalización (Menna Barreto 2000).

La idea de que las expectativas de normalización tienen un efecto en la informalidad, es también corroborada por el gran número de invasiones y ocupaciones que ocurren en los períodos electorales, cuando los candidatos prometen nuevos programas de normalización. La historia latinoamericana de los efectos de las expectativas creadas por promesas populistas, es rica en ejemplos. Varios de los asentamientos existentes que necesitan ser normalizados hoy, deben su origen a la complacencia irresponsable de políticos que cerraron los ojos o, lo que es peor, que cedieron terrenos públicos por propósitos electorales.

Los Costos de Oportunidad de la Normalización

Los programas de normalización, que son de naturaleza remedial o curativa, tienen un costo de oportunidad alto comparado con el de proporcionar la tierra urbanizada en una manera preventiva. El costo por familia de un programa de normalización ha estado en la gama de US$3,000 a US$4,000. Tomando el tamaño de un lote alrededor 50 m2 y agregando el 20 por ciento para calles y otros servicios públicos, el costo se mueve de US$50 A US$70 por m2. Esto es mucho más alto que producir tierra nueva, que es inferior a US$25 por m2, y es similar al precio cargado por urbanizadores privados, incluso con un buen margen de ganancia. ECIA, un urbanizador de Río de Janeiro, vendió lotes completamente urbanizados desde US$70 a US$143 por m2 en precios 1999 (Oliveira 1999). En el mismo sentido, Aristizabal y Ortíz (2001) en Bogotá, estiman que el costo de corrección (“la reparación”) de un asentamiento irregular es 2.7 veces el costo de áreas planeadas.

Estas cifras sugieren las limitaciones de programas curativos a favor de los preventivos. Es también relevante que el permiso de desarrollar una subdivisión, formal puede tomar de tres a cinco años, mientras que la decisión de regularizar un establecimiento informal a menudo toma menos de seis meses.

” El Día Después ” de La Normalización

Un programa de regularización bien ejecutado (es decir el que integra con eficacia al área informal con la malla urbana) generalmente eleva la calidad de vida para todos los ocupantes y fortalece las comunidades. También trae valorización de la propiedad, causando alguna movilidad residencial de familias con ingresos debajo del promedio, que son presionadas a mudarse. Sin embargo, cuando el programa es mal ejecutado, el área puede consolidarse como un asentamiento irregular de bajos ingresos.

El Programa “Favela – Bairro” de Río de Janeiro es a menudo puesto de ejemplo como la experiencia más amplia y exitosa en su clase. Abramo (2002) estudió el impacto del programa y encontró valorizaciones relativamente pequeñas (28%). Aplicando este promedio a una vivienda típica o modesta con precios previos de US$12,000, el valor ganado es cercano a US$3,400, un número parecido al costo medio por familia en programas de regularización. Este resultado contrasta con en incremento de más del 100% obtenido en el proceso de urbanizar tierra rústica por agentes privados. Esta intrigante información parece mostrar que el “mercado” se entera poco del incremento en valor de los asentamientos mejorados. La inserción completa en los tejidos urbanos resulta ser menos frecuente de lo esperado. Muchas “favelas” que recibieron importantes inversiones de mejoramiento, permanecen estigmatizadas como “favelas” 15 años más tarde.

Conclusiones

La informalidad es costosa y exacerba las penurias de vivir en la pobreza. El diagnóstico de agencias como Hábitat, Banco Mundial, Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo y otros, parecen estar en lo correcto respetando los programas de mejoramiento como parte esencial de cualquier política para enfrentar la pobreza urbana. Sin embargo, debido al enfoque fragmentado y limitado de estos programas, no hay ninguna garantía de que la normalización de asentamientos sola contribuya a reducir la pobreza urbana. En efecto estos programas no sólo mantienen intactas y refuerzan las “reglas del juego” del mercado que contribuyen a la informalidad, sino que además generan efectos perversos. Esta situación plantea un dilema y un desafío. El dilema es que no regularizar simplemente no es una opción política (ni humanitaria). El desafío es cómo interrumpir el ciclo vicioso de pobreza e informalidad a través de intervenciones en el mercado de tierra. La tarea por hacer es formidable, pero hay lugares en América Latina donde los gobiernos locales están comenzando a poner nuevas reglas de juego.

Martim O. Smolka es “Senior Fellow” y director del Programa para América Latina y el Caribe del Lincoln Institute.

Andrés Escobar es Gerente de MetroVivienda, Empresa del Distrito de Bogotá, generadora de nuevo suelo urbano.