Topic: Desenvolvimento Econômico

La fotografía muestra una vista aérea de un paisaje con cielo y montañas azules en la distancia

El declive de los centros comerciales en Estados Unidos

Cómo sortean los municipios los cambios en el panorama de las tiendas minoristas
Por Gregory Scruggs, Fevereiro 21, 2020

 

La lucha de Bangor Mall es una parábola nacional del cambio de hábitos en el comercio minorista. El centro comercial se construyó en una antigua granja lechera en Maine, abrió las puertas en octubre de 1978 y llegó a atender a dos tercios de la población estatal, gracias a su ubicación conveniente junto a una vía principal, la Interestatal 95, en el medio del estado. Durante décadas, contribuyó generosamente a la base imponible local, con unos US$ 1,2 millones al año. Sin embargo, en los últimos años, la estructura color crema con detalles azules que solía sostener a la tercera ciudad más grande de Maine estuvo pasando por las mismas dificultades que afectan a los centros comerciales de todo el país.

En los últimos veinte años, los consumidores a nivel nacional hicieron cambios importantes en sus hábitos de consumo, migraron a la compra minorista en línea y volvieron a los tradicionales corredores comerciales y distritos de compras en áreas metropolitanas económicamente fuertes. Mientras tanto, Walmart consolidó su posición como el minorista físico más grande del país, con una fuerte clientela rural, fuera de los suburbios y de pueblos chicos. Como resultado, las marcas minoristas antes veneradas, como Sears y Toys’R’Us se enfrentaron a la bancarrota.

Esta alteración creó un damero de tiendas vacantes en toda la nación, incluso en las extensas 35 hectáreas de Bangor Mall, que hoy tiene el respaldo de Dick’s Sporting Goods y Furniture Mattresses & More. En el mismo lugar, otros minoristas de siempre, como el gran almacén JCPenney, firmaron extensiones de alquileres, aunque el futuro mismo del centro comercial tambalea, ya que los propietarios, que son de otro estado, luchan con el viento en contra de los minoristas. En 2017 pertenecía a Simon Property Group, de Indianápolis (que posee propiedades minoristas en 37 estados y en Puerto Rico, además de Europa y Asia), quienes no pudieron pagar un préstamo de US$ 80 millones y debieron usarlo como garantía. En febrero de 2019, la propiedad se vendió en una subasta a un trío de inversionistas con base en Nueva York por US$ 12,6 millones, menos de la mitad del valor tasado.

Las tasaciones cayeron en picada en los últimos años debido a la reducción de los ingresos netos de explotación estimados y el aumento de tiendas vacantes, según Philip Drew, asesor de la ciudad de Bangor. El centro comercial ha presenciado reducciones consecutivas de alrededor del 25 por ciento año a año: de US$ 60,9 millones en 2017, pasó a US$ 46,3 millones en 2018 y a US$ 34,6 millones en 2019. En 2017 y 2018, años en los que se observó la partida de inquilinos insignia como Macy’s y Sears, respectivamente, el propietario pagó los impuestos, pero apeló a reducciones en la tasación, debido a la situación precaria de la propiedad. Drew denegó los pedidos, y sus decisiones se apelaron en la Junta de Revisiones del Impuesto a la Propiedad del Estado de Maine.

Mientras tanto, la factura de cobros de Bangor Mall bajó a menos de US$ 1 millón por primera vez en dos décadas. Semejante resultado puede parecer un gran golpe para el presupuesto de Bangor, pero resultó ser manejable, dice Drew. El centro comercial representa el 1,31 por ciento de la tasación imponible total de la ciudad. Pero estos cambios no son los únicos en curso: en total, Bangor recaudó más renta por tributos inmobiliarios este año que el año pasado. “El crecimiento de la tasación imponible en la ciudad ocurrió hace poco en el distrito céntrico, con una nueva sede bancaria que pertenece a Bangor Savings Bank tasada en US$ 22 millones y la remodelación de estructuras céntricas para atender la demanda de departamentos en la zona”, dice Drew.

En otras palabras, mientras un centro comercial flaquea en el límite de la ciudad, el centro de esta prospera, y la pérdida de impuestos a la propiedad y la venta de uno se compensa con el otro. Este es el resultado de un plan de revitalización que Bangor inició en la década de 1990. También es parte de una creciente narrativa alternativa a la historia dominante de los medios de la última década, que predecía que el aumento de las compras en línea marcaría el fin de los minoristas físicos, y en el proceso se podría dañar la salud fiscal de los municipios.

A medida que el cambio se desarrolla en comunidades pequeñas y grandes de Estados Unidos, los hechos son más complicados que los relatos sugeridos por los medios; y el panorama es más optimista de lo que presagiaban los titulares. Al implementar medidas proactivas, desde invertir en el centro hasta repensar el uso de superficies valiosas ocupadas por los centros comerciales, Bangor y otras jurisdicciones demuestran cómo sortean las mareas cambiantes en el comercio minorista.

Por qué el comercio minorista interesa a los municipios

No es un secreto que los gobiernos locales financian sus operaciones, en gran parte, con los impuestos a la propiedad (ver Figura 1). La fuente de ingresos representa el 72 por ciento del total de impuestos locales recaudados en 2015. Si bien la relación entre propiedades residenciales y comerciales varía en cada comunidad, al igual que las respectivas tasas impositivas de dichas propiedades, en general el comercio minorista conforma cerca de un cuarto del valor total de las propiedades comerciales. Sin embargo, el hecho de que sea el éxito o la ruina de un presupuesto municipal varía muchísimo.

En algunas comunidades que dependen de los centros comerciales, estos pueden representar hasta el 20 o el 30 por ciento de la base imponible, y otros contribuyentes pueden pagar menos en relación”, dice Ron Rakow, miembro del Instituto Lincoln de Políticas de Suelo y ex tasador de la ciudad de Boston. Rakow ha realizado investigaciones sobre las implicaciones impositivas de los cambios en el panorama minorista. “Si al centro comercial no le va tan bien, la comunidad deberá reducir servicios o aumentar los impuestos para otros”.

El condado de Onondaga, alrededor de Syracuse, Nueva York, es una de las comunidades que se enfrentan a ese tipo de decisiones difíciles. ShoppingTown Mall abrió en 1954, con lo cual es uno de los primeros en Estados Unidos. Una serie de inquilinos importantes, entre ellos Macy’s, Dick’s Sporting Goods, JCPenney y Sears, cerró desde 2015. La tasación del centro comercial también bajó en picada, de US$ 53 millones en 2008 a US$ 36 millones en 2014. Mientras tanto, Moonbeam LLC, el propietario, se resistió a pagar los impuestos al condado de Onondaga. En junio de 2019, la empresa no pagó un vencimiento por US$ 9,7 millones en impuestos atrasados que remontaban a 2015. El condado está intentando ejecutar el espacio para redesarrollar el sitio, pero en agosto de 2019 la empresa anunció que pretendía ir a corte de bancarrota para evitar perder la propiedad.

Por supuesto, no solo están en juego los impuestos a la propiedad. “El comercio minorista es inmenso, no solo desde el punto de vista del impuesto a la propiedad, sino también [en términos de] impuesto a la venta”, dice Marc Moffitt, analista de investigación sénior del Distrito Central de Valuación de Denton (Texas) y profesor adjunto en la Universidad del Norte de Texas.

Los impuestos a la venta y otros que no son de propiedad representan cerca del 12 por ciento de la renta municipal. Hasta ahora, el flujo de renta parece mantenerse estable en toda la nación. En el último informe de renta estatal del Instituto Rockefeller, que cubre el cuarto trimestre de 2017, la recaudación de impuestos a la venta aumentó un 4,8 por ciento, el doble del promedio típico para el trimestre (Dadayan 2018).

La combinación de impuestos a la propiedad y a la venta que aportan los minoristas son un golpe doble potente. “Hay pueblos en Texas que son residenciales en un 80 por ciento, pero el 20 por ciento comercial conforma la base imponible”, dice Moffitt.

Reinvertir en el centro

Hay 790.000 hectáreas de espacios minoristas en Estados Unidos, equivalentes a 2,2 metros cuadrados per cápita, el quíntuple del promedio en Europa, de 0,4 metros cuadrados per cápita.

Moffitt considera los 13 centros comerciales regionales esparcidos en la zona metropolitana de Dallas-Fort Worth, donde vive, como un clásico ejemplo del panorama comercial con demasiadas construcciones. “¿Cuántos centros comerciales regionales puede haber en una región?” pregunta.

Los gobiernos locales vieron venir la contracción de centros comerciales. La mayoría de ellos ha estado luchando por mantener casi todas las tiendas alquiladas desde hace al menos una década, y a veces hasta dos. “Las tendencias generales apoyan el hecho de que en algunos centros comerciales regionales puede haber mayor índice de tiendas vacías”, dice Drew, tasador de Bangor. Moffitt predice que dichas vacantes aumentarán en un 20 por ciento en los próximos 5 años.

Así, la próxima década será un período de transición crucial si los consumidores votan con los pies y el bolsillo, y mantienen la preferencia por entornos urbanos más densos y a los que pueden llegar a pie por sobre megatiendas y centros comerciales. En 2019, un informe de la Escuela de Negocios de la Universidad George Washington y Smart Growth America indicó que “los lugares urbanos cercanos”, que cumplen con cierto umbral inmobiliario, de accesibilidad a pie y de densidad de interacción humana, ganaban participación en el mercado más rápido que las contrapartes suburbanas en las 30 áreas metropolitanas más grandes del país (Loh 2019).

Esta tendencia incluye los terrenos vacíos en las ciudades centrales y el redesarrollo urbano de áreas externas que suelen estar orientadas a los autos. Mientras las prósperas economías metropolitanas impulsan este patrón urbano creciente en el panorama construido (ciudad de Nueva York, Washington, DC, Chicago, Boston, área de la bahía de San Francisco y Seattle son las primeras de la lista), las comunidades más pequeñas se ponen al día.

Sheboygan, Wisconsin, sobre el lago Michigan, está viendo los frutos de décadas de trabajo para revitalizar la ciudad. La construcción de dos centros comerciales en la zona, a principios de los 70, “en esencia, minó la vida económica del centro”, según dice Downtowns: Revitalizing the Centers of Small Urban Communities (Centros: revitalizar los centros de las pequeñas comunidades urbanas, Buriyidi 2015). La ciudad empezó a explorar estrategias para volver a llevar a residentes y consumidores al centro ya en los 80, y creó un Distrito de Mejoras Comerciales centrado en minoristas en los 90, pero el centro comercial local, Memorial Mall, siguió siendo un factor importante en la mezcla financiera. Hace una década, la ciudad perdió US$ 1,3 millones en recaudación tributaria anual cuando Memorial Mall, que terminó por cerrar en 2017, impugnó la tasación impositiva.

El centro comercial no era el único contribuyente comercial que tenía conflictos con su factura: hoy, Walmart busca reducciones impositivas por US$ 90.000 y US$ 180.000 para 2017 y 2018. Esta labor de Walmart es una de las muchas que inició en municipios de todo el país, y es parte de un actual conflicto entre los megaminoristas y los municipios en relación con tasaciones justas de impuestos a la propiedad. La tensión llevó a apelaciones legales en al menos 21 estados en los últimos 10 años, según indica una encuesta de la Asociación Internacional de Funcionarios Tasadores realizada por CityLab en 2018, y llevó a que al menos cuatro estados consideren normativas que regulen las tasaciones de megapropiedades de ese tipo.

A pesar de estas pérdidas, Sheboygan logró conservar los servicios en la ciudad sin aumentar los impuestos a la propiedad residencial. ¿Cómo? En paralelo al cierre de Memorial Mall, Acuity Insurance hizo una gran apuesta en el pueblo costero de 50.000 personas a 96 kilómetros al norte de Milwaukee. La aseguradora mediana, fundada en 1925 y con actividad en 27 estados, hizo inversiones importantes en la sede central corporativa de Sheboygan, expandió el edificio y contrató a cientos de personas. Aunque en sí la sede se encuentra fuera del centro, allí surgieron nuevos departamentos para albergar a los nuevos empleados, y esto colaboró con las labores de revitalización. Sheboygan también está invirtiendo en un distrito céntrico de innovación y lanzará un programa para destacar minoristas que ofrece préstamos a corto plazo a propietarios de tiendas pequeñas.

Al igual que en Bangor, estas labores de desarrollo del centro ayudaron a Sheboygan a absorber la pérdida de un centro comercial que solía ser un contribuyente principal a la base imponible. Este tipo de rebote no es viable en todas partes, destaca Rakow: “Si la economía y la población de una comunidad no crecen y no son saludables, será difícil que [los comercios] prosperen, ya sea en un centro comercial o en el centron”. Pero en Sheboygan, los funcionarios demuestran que hay vida después del centro comercial.

Si bien antes fue una de las propiedades de mayor valor, la pérdida del valor afecta la mentalidad más que el bolsillo”, dice Mike Grota, tasador de la ciudad de Sheboygan.

Listos para el redesarrollo

Algunos dicen que los centros comerciales de hoy representan un uso incorrecto del sitio correcto. Quiere decir que en general tienen buenas ubicaciones, cerca de grandes vías, y en algunos casos, transporte público, y los grandes lotes de tierra que ocupan tienen agua, cloacas y electricidad. “Los centros comerciales como tipo de propiedad han muerto”, dice Moffitt, que afirma que la pregunta no es si los centros comerciales se irán a pique y estarán listos para el redesarrollo, sino cuándo.

Lo que valen los centros comerciales hoy es el polvo. Las estructuras tienen valor escaso o nulo”, añade. “Los inversionistas ven a los centros comerciales como oportunidades de redesarrollo mixto que podrán servir mejor a la comunidad, y ofrecerán una base imponible de ventas y propiedad mucho más robusta”.

Ya surgen historias de transformaciones exitosas. “Puede que de ahora en más las propiedades de los centros comerciales ya no sean solo para minoristas”, dice Rakow. “Para que sigan siendo económicamente viables y mantengan el tráfico peatonal del que tanto dependen los minoristas más pequeños, están llegando otros usos, como museos, gimnasios y en especial tiendas de alimentos”.

Un cambio tan radical en un entorno exclusivamente minorista puede entrar en conflicto con las políticas de uso del suelo. En vez de obstaculizar la transición, el gobierno local puede tomar las riendas para ayudar a garantizar un futuro económicamente dinámico. “Hay toda una noción nueva de que las comunidades trabajan con los propietarios de centros comerciales, si hay problemas con la zonificación o el uso del suelo”, dice Rakow.

Tal es el caso de University Place en Chapel Hill, Carolina del Norte. En 2016, era uno de los 10 mayores contribuyentes de la ciudad universitaria. Al año siguiente, se cayó de ese pedestal. “Los metros cuadrados del centro representan una presencia minorista importante en el mercado”, dice Dwight Bassett, funcionario de desarrollo económico de Chapel Hill. “Nos gustaría ver que las nuevas inversiones creen nuevo valor y lo vuelvan a convertir en un contribuyente principal”.

Más de una década después de que Madison Marquette, con base en Washington, DC, adquiriera el centro comercial que flaqueaba, Chapel Hill adaptó cambios en el sitio, que pasó de ser un centro comercial tradicional interno a uno que mira más hacia fuera. Hoy, alberga un museo para niños, un gimnasio y un estudio de CrossFit. Un espacio minorista grande se convirtió en Southern Season, una tienda de alimentos especializada que ofrece un bar con cata de vino y cerveza, clases de cocina y un restaurante completo.

Habilitamos una nueva entrada desde una calle importante, cambiamos la normativa de anuncios y ubicamos allí la biblioteca por un tiempo mientras la reconstruíamos”, dice Bassett. “Creo que asociarnos y preguntar siempre cómo podemos ayudar a facilitar el cambio del centro a un destino de mercado diferente fue una parte esencial del papel que cumplimos hasta ahora”.

Pero no todas las transformaciones tienen tan buenos resultados. En el vecindario Antioch de Nashville, Tennessee, Hickory Hollow Mall perdió las últimas dos tiendas departamentales en 2011 y terminó por cerrar las puertas. Los propietarios reposicionaron la propiedad con un nombre nuevo (Global Mall at the Crossings) y agregaron un nuevo centro comunitario, un campus satelital del instituto de enseñanza superior, una biblioteca y un centro recreativo. Como potencial apoyo, también alberga una pista de práctica para la franquicia de NHL de Nashville. Sin embargo, después de inyectar más de US$ 50 millones, aún tiene problemas. En noviembre de 2019, colapsó un plan para transformarlo en el primer “distrito innovador” de Nashville, cuando un desarrollador local se apartó del acuerdo. Muchas de las vidrieras de Hickory Hollow siguen vacías. Sin ingreso de dinero, empeoró el estado de la estructura.

Otro camino para los centros comerciales se vincula al éxito del comercio electrónico: la ubicación resultó atractiva para los centros de distribución de Amazon. Si bien al principio las comunidades estaban dispuestas a ofrecer alivios impositivos al gigante minorista en línea (en particular mientras este buscaba una segunda sede central), eso empezó a cambiar, según Rakow. “Las comunidades pillaron a Amazon”, dice. “Como Amazon necesita que estos centros de distribución estén en ubicaciones estratégicas, las comunidades ya no se apresuran para dar incentivos y alivios fiscales para estas instalaciones. Amazon debería pagar lo que le corresponde, como cualquier otra tienda gigante. La noción de dar incentivos no parece ser una buena práctica fiscal”.

Moffitt afirma que hay momentos catalizadores en que una pequeña inversión por parte del sector público, como renunciar a un poco de renta por impuesto a la propiedad, puede dar dividendos inmensos. Señala a Colin Creek Mall en Plano, Texas. Un desarrollador compró el centro comercial que estaba muriendo, tasado en apenas US$ 10 millones, con el beneficio de un incentivo en el impuesto local a la propiedad, y reestructurará el sitio con US$ 1.000 millones en desarrollo comercial. “Tendrán entre 15 y 20 restaurantes que derivan en un montón de impuestos a la venta y al alcohol”, dice Moffitt. “Cambia totalmente el juego cuando se trata de la base imponible”.

Cultivar el comercio fuera de línea

Cuatro de cada cinco consumidores de Estados Unidos hacen compras en línea (Smith 2016), y casi el 40 por ciento de estos compradores en línea compra algo en Amazon al menos una vez al mes (Selyukh 2018). Esa tendencia tiene un impacto en el panorama construido, pero tal vez no es tan grande como se suele pensar. “La tendencia de compras por Internet amplió lo que creo que es una saturación excesiva del mercado con espacios minoristas”, dice Moffitt. En otras palabras, la tendencia que ya estaba presente se exacerbó.

Moffitt lo desglosa sencillamente en oferta y demanda. “En cualquier radio de 16 kilómetros, hay un límite en la cantidad de dinero sobrante que se puede gastar”, dice. “Ese dinero va a las tiendas gigantes o a las tiendas en línea. Si algunas se van a Internet por conveniencia, lo que ocurrirá es que esas ventas en línea van a canibalizar las tiendas en locales físicos [que venden el mismo tipo de producto]”.

Pero Moffitt dice que las ventas minoristas no están para nada muertas. Destaca que hoy, más del 95 por ciento de los inmuebles minoristas de Estados Unidos están alquilados, más que el pico de 2007 antes de la Gran Recesión. Se siguen construyendo y alquilando nuevos espacios minoristas. Y los futuros bebedores y comedores de Colin Creek Mall representan otro lugar común de los cambios en el panorama minorista, según Moffitt: “Hay muchas cosas que no se compran en Amazon”.

Bares, restaurantes, peluquerías, barberías, gimnasios, guarderías de mascotas y estudios de yoga son todos tipos de comercios minoristas basados en experiencias o consumo, más que en bienes. Tienen una posición mucho mejor para prosperar en la nueva era minorista.

Por ejemplo, Lindsay Relihan, profesora en la Escuela de Economía de Londres, estudió a los primeros adoptantes de las plataformas de compras de comestibles en línea. En los primeros dos años luego de cambiar a cierta medida de compras de comestibles en línea, estos consumidores reducen los gastos en tiendas en un 4,5 por ciento, pero aumentan el gasto en cafeterías en un 7,6 por ciento (Relihan 2017).

Las políticas que apoyan una transición al comercio minorista orientado al servicio, a la densidad y la accesibilidad de dicho servicio, probablemente sean la clave para la salud minorista local”, dice. “Las transiciones son muy perturbadoras en el corto plazo, pero yo no veo motivos para que la salud fiscal empeore necesariamente a largo plazo”. 

Dichos comercios orientados al servicio, que dependen mucho del tráfico a pie, tienden a estar ubicados en calles principales y corredores comerciales tradicionales. Hoy, estas ubicaciones son “las más deseadas desde una perspectiva inmobiliaria minorista”, dice Rakow. “Llaman a alquileres bastante altos y tienen menos vidrieras vacías”. Esta tendencia tiene buenos resultados en ubicaciones urbanas y no tan buenos en zonas suburbanas de la posguerra, que no tienen el tejido de densidad de una calle principal o un corredor comercial.

A fin de cuentas, Amazon y la aceleración del comercio electrónico aún representan cerca del 10 al 11 por ciento de las ventas minoristas (USDC 2019). CBRE espera que la participación en el mercado crezca poco más del 15 por ciento hacia 2022. Mientras tanto, las megatiendas de Walmart en los límites urbanos siguen prosperando, aunque las ciudades reinviertan en el centro. Con la evolución de la propensión y las tecnologías de los clientes, no muchos pueden predecir cómo será el panorama minorista dentro de 10 o 20 años. Pero una cosa es cierta, como están descubriendo los dirigentes municipales de Bangor, Sheboygan, Chapel Hill y muchas otras comunidades: para mantenerse al día con los cambios de hábitos minoristas y el impacto en la salud fiscal, se requiere flexibilidad, creatividad y previsión.

 


 

Gregory Scruggs es periodista; escribe sobre entornos construidos y naturales. Basado en Seattle, es miembro del Instituto Estadounidense de Planificadores Certificados.

Fotografía: Vista aérea del centro comercial Bangor en Bangor, Maine. Crédito: Ten-X Comercial.

 


 

Referencias

Bliss, Laura. 2018. “After the Retail Apocalypse, Prepare for the Property Tax Meltdown.” CityLab, 14 de noviembre. https://www.citylab.com/equity/2018/11/property-tax-dark-store-theory-retail-apocalypse-walmart/574123.

Buriyidi, Michael. (2001) 2015. Downtowns: Revitalizing the Centers of Small Urban Communities. Nueva York, NY: Routledge.

CBRE. n.d. “How High Will E-Commerce Sales Go?” http://www.cbre.us/real-estate-services/real-estate-industries/omnichannel/the-definitive-guide-to-omnichannel-real-estate/by-the-numbers/how-high-will-e-commerce-sales-go.

Dadayan, Lucy. 2018. State Revenue Report. Albany, NY: Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute of Government (12 de marzo). https://rockinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/State_Revenue_Report_Third_Quarter_2017.pdf.

Loh, Tracey Hadden, Christopher Leinberger y Jordan Chafetz. 2019. Foot Traffic Ahead: Ranking Walkable Urbanism in America’s Largest Metros. Washington, DC: Escuela de Negocios de la Universidad George Washington y Smart Growth America (junio). https://smartgrowthamerica.org/resources/foot-traffic-ahead-2019.

Rakow, Ron. Próximamente. “The Impact of an Evolving Real Estate Environment on Property Tax Revenue.” Artículo en elaboración. Cambridge, MA: Instituto Lincoln de Políticas de Suelo.

Relihan, Lindsay. 2017. “Is Online Retail Killing Coffee Shops? Estimating the Winners and Losers of Online Retail Using Customer Transaction Microdata.” Artículo en elaboración. Philadelphia, PA: Escuela Wharton. https://www.lindsayrelihan.com/research.

Selyukh, Alina. 2018. “What Americans Told Us About Online Shopping Says a Lot About Amazon.” Morning Edition. Radio Pública Nacional, 6 de junio. https://www.npr.org/2018/06/06/615137239/what-americans-told-us-about-online-shopping-says-a-lot-about-amazon.

Smith, Aaron y Monica Anderson. 2016. Online Shopping and E-Commerce. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center (19 de diciembre). https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2016/12/19/online-shopping-and-e-commerce.

USDC (Departamento de Comercio de Estados Unidos). 2019. “Quarterly Retail E-Commerce Sales: Second Quarter 2019.” Comunicado de prensa. 19 de agosto. https://www.census.gov/retail/mrts/www/data/pdf/ec_current.pdf.

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2020 C. Lowell Harriss Dissertation Fellowship Program

Submission Deadline: March 16, 2020 at 6:00 PM

The Lincoln Institute's C. Lowell Harriss Dissertation Fellowship Program assists Ph.D. students, primarily at U.S. universities, whose research complements the Institute's interests in land and tax policy. The program provides an important link between the Institute's educational mission and its research objectives by supporting scholars early in their careers.

For information on present and previous fellowship recipients and projects, please visit C. Lowell Harriss Dissertation Fellows, Current and Past


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2020 Professional Certificate in Municipal Finance – Phoenix

Abril 15, 2020 - Abril 17, 2020

Phoenix, AZ United States

Offered in inglês


Events in Detroit, Stockton, Flint, and Puerto Rico highlight the severe challenges related to fiscal systems that support public services and the continued stress they face given local governments’ shrinking revenue streams.

Whether you want to better understand public-private partnerships, debt and municipal securities, or leading land-based finance strategies to finance infrastructure projects, this Professional Certificate in Municipal Finance will give you the skills and insights you need as you advance your career in urban planning, real estate, or economic development.

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Created by Harris Public Policy’s Center for Municipal Finance and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, this three-day program provides a thorough foundation in municipal finance with a focus on urban planning and economic development. This course will include modules on the following topics:

  • Urban Economics and Growth
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Participants will learn how to effectively apply tools of financial analysis to make strategic decisions and gain an improved understanding of the interplay among finance, urban economics, and public policy as it relates to urban planning and economic development.

Upon completion of the program, participants will receive a Certificate in Municipal Finance.

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Urban planners who work in both the private and public sectors as well as individuals in the economic development, community development, and land development industries.

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David C. Lincoln Conference Center
Phoenix, AZ United States
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Keywords

Desenvolvimento Econômico, Infraestrutura, Uso do Solo, Governo Local, Saúde Fiscal Municipal, Planejamento, Tributação Imobiliária, Finanças Públicas

Course

2020 Professional Certificate in Municipal Finance – Chicago

Março 18, 2020 - Março 20, 2020

Chicago, IL United States

Offered in inglês


Events in Detroit, Stockton, Flint, and Puerto Rico highlight the severe challenges related to fiscal systems that support public services and the continued stress they face given local governments’ shrinking revenue streams.

Whether you want to better understand public-private partnerships, debt and municipal securities, or leading land-based finance strategies to finance infrastructure projects, this Professional Certificate in Municipal Finance will give you the skills and insights you need as you advance your career in urban planning, real estate, or economic development.

Overview

Created by Harris Public Policy’s Center for Municipal Finance and the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, this three-day program provides a thorough foundation in municipal finance with a focus on urban planning and economic development. This course will include modules on the following topics:

  • Urban Economics and Growth
  • Intergovernmental Fiscal Frameworks, Revenues, Budgeting
  • Capital Budgeting/Accounting and Infrastructure Maintenance
  • Debt/Municipal Securities
  • Land-Based Finance/Land Value Capture
  • Public-Private Partnerships
  • Cost-Benefit Analysis
  • Fiscal Impact Analysis

Participants will learn how to effectively apply tools of financial analysis to make strategic decisions and gain an improved understanding of the interplay among finance, urban economics, and public policy as it relates to urban planning and economic development.

Upon completion of the program, participants will receive a Certificate in Municipal Finance.

Who Should Attend

Urban planners who work in both the private and public sectors as well as individuals in the economic development, community development, and land development industries.

Cost

Nonprofit and public sector: $1,200
Private sector: $2,250

Space is limited.


Details

Date
Março 18, 2020 - Março 20, 2020
Application Period
Dezembro 20, 2019 - Março 9, 2020
Location
The University of Chicago Keller Center
1307 E 60th St.
Chicago, IL United States
Language
inglês
Number of Credits
15.00
Educational Credit Type
AICP CM credits
Related Links

Keywords

Desenvolvimento Econômico, Infraestrutura, Uso do Solo, Governo Local, Saúde Fiscal Municipal, Planejamento, Tributação Imobiliária, Finanças Públicas

Sara Bronin speaks into a microphone. The background shows her power point presentation.

Land Matters Podcast

Episode 8: Hartford, Ready for a Reboot
By Anthony Flint, Dezembro 19, 2019

 

Situated almost exactly in between Boston and New York, Hartford, Connecticut, is a classic mid-sized legacy city with great potential for reinvention. In this episode of the Land Matters podcast, planning commissioner Sara Bronin talks about the cutting-edge urban planning practices she hopes will put the city back on the map, after decades of decline.

In light of the city’s structural challenges in terms of how it gets taxes and how it relates to the state, we’ve really felt within the city we have to take matters into our own hands,” Bronin says. Among the revitalization initiatives: a complete overhaul of an outdated zoning code, which has smoothed the way for lower-cost redevelopment of abandoned factories and other historic buildings now accommodating makers spaces and craft breweries.

An architect and law professor, Bronin helped kick off the Lincoln Institute’s recent scenario planning workshop in Hartford, put on in partnership with the Capitol Region Council of Governments.  The metropolitan region is starting to use scenario planning to project multiple futures for the area, in housing, economic development, and transportation.

With a population of about 125,000 – nearly 1 million including the communities all around it—Hartford is the state capital and the fourth largest city in the state. Once a center of innovation and commerce—inventions include firearms, typewriters, tools, sewing machines, bicycles, and even one of the nation’s first electric cars, plus the beginnings of the modern-day insurance industry – Hartford endured population and manufacturing loss, a decline in property tax revenue, crime and high unemployment dating back at least to the 1960s.

Adding to the challenges, a portion of Interstate 84 through downtown has reached the end of its lifespan, and needs to be rebuilt or reconfigured. Possible solutions include replacing sections with surface boulevards, lowering portions of the freeway, or building extensive tunnels for both vehicular traffic and high-speed rail.

That last proposal suggests a path to renewal through some big-picture thinking. Under the Rebooting New England initiative, Amtrak’s high-speed Acela route would go through Hartford between New York and Boston, placing the city at the center of a new Northeast megaregion – and instantly opening up housing and labor markets through faster connections among all the cities of southern New England. The proposal was inspired by the UK’s Northern Powerhouse effort linking older industrial cities north of London.

Zoning reform, scenario planning, major infrastructure investments, and megaregions are all in the mix, and get thorough consideration in this wide-ranging conversation.

You can listen to the show and subscribe to Land Matters on Apple PodcastsGoogle PlaySpotifyStitcher, or wherever you listen to podcasts.

Learn More

The Downtown Highway That Could Drive Hartford’s Comeback


 

Anthony Flint is senior fellow in the Office of the President at the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

Photograph: Sara Bronin speaks at the third annual Consortium for Scenario Planning Conference, which took place in November in Hartford, Connecticut. Credit: Diego Lomelli Trejo.

Photograph shows an aerial view of a landscape with sky and blue mountains in the distance

The Unmalling of America

How Municipalities Are Navigating the Changing Retail Landscape
By Gregory Scruggs, Dezembro 16, 2019

 

The struggling Bangor Mall is a national parable of changing retail habits. Built on a former dairy farm in Maine, the mall threw open its doors in October 1978, growing to serve up to two-thirds of the state’s population with a plum location off a main thoroughfare, Interstate 95, in the middle of the state. For decades, the mall contributed handsomely to the local tax base, to the tune of $1.2 million per year. In recent years, however, the cream-colored structure with blue trim that once anchored Maine’s third-largest city has gone through the same hard times affecting shopping malls across the country.

Over the past two decades, consumers nationwide have made significant shifts in their shopping habits, migrating to online retail and returning to traditional commercial corridors and shopping districts in economically strong metro areas. Meanwhile, Walmart has consolidated its position as the nation’s largest brick-and-mortar retailer, with a strong clientele of rural, exurban, and small-town customers. As a result, once-venerable retail brands like Sears and Toys ’R’ Us have faced bankruptcy.

This disruption has created a checkerboard of vacancies nationwide, including on the expansive 88 acres of the Bangor Mall, which is now anchored by Dick’s Sporting Goods and Furniture Mattresses & More. Other longtime retailers in the space, like department store JCPenney, have signed lease extensions, though the mall’s very future remains wobbly as out-of-state owners grapple with retail headwinds. In 2017, then-owner Simon Property Group of Indianapolis—which owns retail properties in 37 U.S. states and Puerto Rico, as well as in Europe and Asia—defaulted on an $80 million loan that had used the mall as collateral. The property was sold at auction to a New York-based investor trio in February 2019 for $12.6 million, less than half of its assessed value.

Those assessments have fallen precipitously in recent years due to the decrease in estimated net operating income and increase in vacancy, according to Bangor City Assessor Philip Drew. The mall has seen consecutive year-over-year reductions of roughly 25 percent, from $60.9 million in 2017 to $46.3 million in 2018 to $34.6 million in 2019. In both 2017 and 2018, years that saw the departures of flagship tenants Macy’s and Sears, respectively, the mall’s owner paid its taxes, but appealed for reductions in its assessment given the precarious situation at the property. Drew denied the requests, and his decisions have been appealed to the State of Maine Board of Property Tax Review.

In the meantime, the Bangor Mall’s tax bill has dropped below $1 million for the first time in two decades. Such an outcome may sound like a major hit to Bangor’s budget, but the blow turned out to be manageable, Drew says. The mall accounts for 1.31 percent of the city’s total taxable valuation. But the shifts at the mall aren’t the only changes afoot: overall, Bangor collected more property tax revenue this year than last. “The city’s taxable valuation growth has recently occurred in the downtown district, with a new bank campus owned by Bangor Savings Bank valued at $22 million and the remodel of downtown structures to satisfy the demand for downtown apartments,” Drew says.

In other words, while a mall on the edge of town sputters, Bangor’s downtown is thriving, and the loss of property and sales tax from one was compensated for by the other. It’s the result of a downtown revitalization plan Bangor started in the 1990s. It’s also part of a growing counternarrative to the dominant media story of the past decade, which predicted that the surge in online shopping would spell the end for brick-and-mortar retail, potentially damaging municipal fiscal health along the way.

As this shift plays out in communities large and small across the United States, the facts are more complicated than those media accounts would suggest—and the outlook is more optimistic than the headlines portend. By implementing proactive measures from investing in downtowns to rethinking the use of the valuable acreage occupied by malls, Bangor and other jurisdictions are demonstrating how to navigate the changing retail tides.

Why Retail Matters to Municipalities

That local governments fund their operations in large part on property taxes is no secret (see Figure 1). The revenue source accounts for 72 percent of the total local taxes collected in 2015. While the ratio of residential to commercial properties varies from community to community, as do the respective tax rates placed upon those properties, retail typically accounts for approximately one-quarter of all commercial property value. Whether retail is make or break for a municipal budget, however, varies widely.

In some communities dependent on malls, they can make up 20 to 30 percent of their tax base and other taxpayers may have been paying relatively less,” says Lincoln Institute of Land Policy Fellow Ron Rakow, former assessor for the City of Boston. Rakow has conducted research on the tax implications of the changing retail environment (Rakow 2018). “If the mall isn’t doing as well, the community is either going to have to reduce services or increase taxes for others.”

Onondoga County, which surrounds Syracuse, New York, is among those communities facing such tough choices. ShoppingTown Mall opened in 1954, placing it among the earliest U.S. shopping malls. A succession of major tenants, including Macy’s, Dick’s Sporting Goods, JCPenney, and Sears, has closed since 2015. The mall’s assessment has dropped precipitously as well, from $53 million in 2008 to $36 million in 2014. Meanwhile, the mall’s owner, Moonbeam LLC, has resisted paying its tax bill to Onondoga County. In June 2019, the company missed a deadline to pay $9.7 million in back taxes dating to 2015. The county is trying to foreclose on the mall in order to redevelop the site, but in August 2019 the company announced its intention to head to bankruptcy court to avoid losing the property.

It’s not just property taxes that are a factor, of course. “Retail is huge, not only from a property tax standpoint, but also [in terms of] sales tax,” says Marc Moffitt, senior research analyst at the Denton (Texas) Central Appraisal District and an adjunct faculty member at the University of North Texas. Sales and other non-property taxes account for about 12 percent of municipal tax revenue. So far, that revenue stream appears to be holding steady nationwide. In the Rockefeller Institute’s most recent state revenue report, covering the fourth quarter of 2017, sales tax collection increased 4.8 percent, doubling the typical quarterly average (Dadayan 2018). The combination of property and sales tax that retailers provide makes for a potent one-two punch. “There are Texas towns that are 80 percent residential, but the 20 percent that is commercial makes up the tax base,” Moffitt says.

Reinvesting in Downtowns

There are 8.5 billion square feet of retail space in the United States, which equates to 24.5 square feet of retail space per capita, or five times Europe’s average of 4.5 square feet per capita. Moffitt looks to the 13 regional malls sprawled across the Dallas-Fort Worth metro area where he lives as a classic example of the overbuilt mall environment. “How many regional malls can you have in one region?” he asks.

Local governments have seen the mall contraction coming. Most malls have been struggling to maintain close to full occupancy for at least a decade, sometimes up to two decades. “The general trends support the fact that increasing vacancy rates are likely for some regional malls,” Bangor assessor Drew says.

Moffitt predicts that such vacancies will increase 20 percent over the next five years. That makes the forthcoming decade a crucial transition period as consumers vote with their feet and their wallets, staking out a preference for denser, walkable urban environments over big-box stores and shopping malls. In 2019, a report from the George Washington University School of Business and Smart Growth America claimed that “walkable urban places,” which meet a certain threshold of real estate, walkability, and human interaction density, were gaining market share faster than their suburban counterparts in the country’s 30 largest metro areas (Loh 2019).

This trend includes both infill in central cities and the urban redevelopment of traditionally car-oriented outer areas. While booming metropolitan economies are driving this increasingly urban pattern in the built environment—New York City, Washington, DC, Chicago, Boston, the San Francisco Bay area, and Seattle top the list—smaller communities are catching on.

Sheboygan, Wisconsin, on the shores of Lake Michigan, is seeing the fruits of decades of work to revitalize its downtown. The construction of two malls in the area in the early 1970s “essentially sapped the economic life out of the downtown,” according to Downtowns: Revitalizing the Centers of Small Urban Communities (Buriyidi 2001). The city began to explore strategies for bringing residents and shoppers back downtown as early as the 1980s, creating a retail-focused Business Improvement District in the 1990s, but the local shopping hub, Memorial Mall, remained a significant player in the financial mix. A decade ago, the city lost $1.3 million in annual tax revenue when Memorial Mall, which eventually closed in 2017, challenged its tax assessment.

The mall wasn’t the only commercial taxpayer to take issue with its bill; Walmart is now seeking tax reductions of $90,000 and $180,000 for 2017 and 2018. The effort by Walmart is one of many initiated by the retailer in municipalities across the country, and is part of an ongoing conflict between big-box retailers and municipalities regarding the fairness of property tax assessments. The tension has led to legal appeals in at least 21 states over the past 10 years, according to a survey of the International Association of Assessing Officers conducted by CityLab in 2018, and has led at least four states to consider legislation that would regulate assessments for big-box properties.

Despite these losses, Sheboygan has managed to maintain its existing city services without increasing residential property taxes. How? Parallel with Memorial Mall’s demise, Acuity Insurance has bet big on the 50,000-person beach town 60 miles north of Milwaukee. The mid-sized insurance company, founded in 1925 and active in 27 states, has made major investments in its corporate headquarters in Sheboygan, expanding the building and hiring hundreds of people. Although the headquarters itself is located outside of downtown, new downtown apartments have sprung up to house its growing staff, contributing to the ongoing revitalization effort there. Sheboygan is also investing in a downtown innovation district and launching a pop-up retail program that offers short-term leases to small business owners. As in Bangor, these downtown development efforts have helped Sheboygan absorb the loss of a mall that was once a major contributor to its tax base. This kind of rebound isn’t feasible everywhere, Rakow points out: “If a community’s economy and population is not growing and healthy, it will be difficult for [businesses] to thrive, whether in a mall or downtown.” But in Sheboygan, officials are demonstrating that there can be life after the mall.

While in the past it was one of the higher valued properties, the loss of value affects the mindset more than the pocketbook,” says Sheboygan City Assessor Mike Grota.

Ripe for Redevelopment

Today’s malls, some say, are the wrong use for the right site. That is to say, they generally have good locations near major roadways and in some cases public transit, and the large parcel of land they occupy is already serviced with water, sewer, and electricity. “Malls as a property type are dead,” says Moffitt. “It is not if, it’s when they go under and are ready for redevelopment.”

What malls are worth right now is their dirt. Their structures have little to no value,” Moffitt adds. “Investors view malls as mixed-use redevelopment opportunities better able to serve the community, and they are going to provide a much more robust sales and property tax base.”

Stories of successful mall transformations are emerging. “Mall properties may no longer be exclusively retail on a forward-going basis,” says Rakow. “To keep them economically viable and maintain the foot traffic that smaller retailers are so dependent on, other uses like museums, health clubs, and specialty food stores are coming into malls.”

Such a radical change from the mall as an exclusively retail environment may conflict with land use policy. Instead of serving as an obstacle to this transition, local government can seize the reins to help secure an economically vibrant future. “There is a whole new notion of communities working with mall owners if there are zoning or land use issues,” says Rakow.

Such is the case with University Place in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. In 2016, it was among the college town’s top 10 taxpayers. The next year, it fell off that perch. “The square footage of the center represents a significant retail presence in our market,” Chapel Hill Economic Development Officer Dwight Bassett says. “We would like to see new investment create new value and become a top taxpayer again.” For over a decade since Washington, DC–based Madison Marquette purchased the faltering mall, Chapel Hill has accommodated changes to the site from a traditional internal mall to one more externally facing. Now the mall is home to a children’s museum, health club, and CrossFit studio. One large retail space was converted to Southern Season, a specialty food store that offers a wine- and beer-tasting bar, cooking classes, and a full-service restaurant.

“We allowed a new entrance on a major road, changed our sign ordinance and temporarily had our library located at the mall while we rebuilt our library,” Bassett says. “I think that being a partner and constantly asking how we can help facilitate moving the center to a different market destination has been a key piece of the role we have played to date.”

But not every mall transformation works out successfully. The Hickory Hollow Mall in the Antioch neighborhood of Nashville, Tennessee, lost the last of its two remaining department stores in 2011 and ultimately closed its doors. The mall’s owners repositioned the property with a new name—Global Mall at the Crossings—and added a new community center, a community college satellite campus, a library, and a recreation center. As a potential anchor, the mall also hosts a practice rink for Nashville’s NHL franchise. However, even after pumping in over $50 million, the mall continues to struggle. In November 2019, a plan to transform the mall into Nashville’s first “innovation district” collapsed when a local developer backed out of the deal. Many of Hickory Hollow’s storefronts continue to sit vacant. Without money coming in, the structure has fallen into disrepair.

Another path for malls is linked to the success of e-commerce: their location has proven appealing to Amazon for its distribution centers. While communities were initially eager to offer tax breaks to the online retail giant—especially in the course of its search for a second headquarters—that has begun to shift, according to Rakow. “Communities have caught on to Amazon,” says Rakow. “Since Amazon really needs to have these distribution centers strategically placed, communities aren’t so quick to give tax incentives and breaks to host those facilities. Amazon should be paying its fair share just like any brick and mortar store. The notion of giving incentives doesn’t seem like it’s a wise fiscal practice.”

Moffitt argues there are catalyzing moments when a small investment by the public sector, such as forgoing some property tax revenue, can pay a huge dividend. He points to Colin Creek Mall in Plano, Texas. A developer bought the dying mall, valued at just $10 million, with the benefit of a local property tax incentive and will recast the site with $1 billion in commercial development. “They are going to have 15 to 20 restaurants that spin off a ton of sales and liquor tax,” Moffitt says. “It’s a total game changer when it comes to the tax base.”

Cultivating Offline Commerce

Four in every five U.S. consumers makes online purchases (Pew 2016), and nearly 40 percent of those online shoppers buy something on Amazon at least once a month (Marist 2018). That tendency impacts the built environment, but perhaps not as severely as often thought. “The internet shopping trend has magnified what I believe is a market oversaturation with retail space,” Moffitt says. In other words, a trend that was already underway has been exacerbated. Moffitt breaks it down to simple supply and demand. “In a given 10-mile radius, there are only so many discretionary dollars available to spend,” he says. “Those dollars either go to brick and mortar or go online. If some of those are going online out of convenience, what’s going to happen is those online sales are going to cannibalize a local brick and mortar store [selling the same types of products].”

But Moffitt says retail is far from dead. He points out that U.S. retail real estate currently sits at over 95 percent occupancy, which is even higher than at the 2007 peak before the Great Recession. New retail space continues to be built out and leased. And the future eaters and drinkers at Colin Creek Mall represent another truism about the changing retail landscape, per Moffitt: “There’s a lot of stuff you don’t buy on Amazon.” Bars, restaurants, hair salons, barbershops, gyms, pet daycare, and yoga studios are all types of retail businesses based on experiences or consumption rather than on goods. They are much better positioned to thrive in the new retail era.

For example, London School of Economics professor Lindsay Relihan has studied early adopters of online grocery platforms. In the first two years since switching to some measure of online grocery shopping, those consumers reduce their spending at grocery stores by 4.5 percent but increase their spending at coffee shops by 7.6 percent (Relihan 2017). “Policies that support a transition to service-oriented retail, and the density and accessibility of that retail, are likely to be key to local retail health,” she says. “Transitions are very disruptive in the short run, but I don’t see any reason why fiscal health should necessarily decline in the long run.” Such service-oriented businesses, which rely heavily on foot traffic, tend to be located on main streets and traditional commercial corridors.

Those locations are now “the most desirable from a retail real estate perspective,” Rakow says. “They command fairly high rents and have lower vacancy.” This trend bodes well for urban locations and less so for postwar suburban areas that lack the dense fabric of a main street or commercial corridor.

At the end of the day, Amazon and the acceleration of e-commerce still account for only about 10 to 11 percent of retail sales (USDC 2019). CBRE expects that market share to grow to just over 15 percent by 2022 (CBRE 2019). Meanwhile, Walmart’s big-box stores on the urban fringe continue to thrive, even as cities reinvest in their downtowns. As customer proclivities and technologies evolve, few can predict what the retail landscape might look like 10 or 20 years from now. But one thing is certain, as municipal leaders in Bangor, Sheboygan, Chapel Hill, and many other communities are discovering: Keeping up with changing retail habits and their impact on fiscal health requires flexibility, creativity, and foresight.

 


 

Gregory Scruggs is a journalist who writes about built and natural environments. A member of the American Institute of Certified Planners, he is based in Seattle.

Photographs in order of appearance:

Aerial view of the Bangor Mall in Bangor, Maine. Credit: Ten-X Commercial.

Some experiences simply cannot be replicated online. Communities are counting on that fact to help coffee shops and other local businesses stay afloat. Credit: Brewbooks/Flickr CC BY 2.0.

 


 

References

Bliss, Laura. 2018. “After the Retail Apocalypse, Prepare for the Property Tax Meltdown.” CityLab, November 14. https://www.citylab.com/equity/2018/11/property-tax-dark-store-theory-retail-apocalypse-walmart/574123/.

Buriyidi, Michael. (2001) 2015. Downtowns: Revitalizing the Centers of Small Urban Communities. New York, NY: Routledge.

CBRE. n.d. “How High Will E-Commerce Sales Go?” http://www.cbre.us/real-estate-services/real-estate-industries/omnichannel/the-definitive-guide-to-omnichannel-real-estate/by-the-numbers/how-high-will-e-commerce-sales-go.

Dadayan, Lucy. 2018. State Revenue Report. Albany, NY: Nelson A. Rockefeller Institute of Government (May 12). https://rockinst.org/issue-area/revenues-likely-fluctuate-due-passage-federal-tax-cuts-jobs-act-states-explore-ways-mitigate-impact/.

Loh, Tracey Hadden, Christopher Leinberger, and Jordan Chafetz. 2019. “Foot Traffic Ahead: Ranking Walkable Urbanism in America’s Largest Metros.” Washington, DC: Washington University School of Business and Smart Growth America (June). https://smartgrowthamerica.org/resources/foot-traffic-ahead-2019/.

Rakow, Ron. Forthcoming. “The Impact of an Evolving Real Estate Environment on Property Tax Revenue.” Working paper. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.

Relihan, Lindsay. 2017. “Is Online Retail Killing Coffee Shops? Estimating the Winners and Losers of Online Retail Using Customer Transaction Microdata.” Working paper. Philadelphia, PA: Wharton School. https://www.lindsayrelihan.com/research/.

Selyukh, Alina. 2018. “What Americans Told Us About Online Shopping Says a Lot About Amazon.” Morning Edition. National Public Radio, June 6. https://www.npr.org/2018/06/06/615137239/what-americans-told-us-about-online-shopping-says-a-lot-about-amazon.

Smith, Aaron, and Monica Anderson. 2016. “Online Shopping and E-Commerce.” Pew Research Center (December 19). https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2016/12/19/online-shopping-and-e-commerce/.

USDC (U.S. Department of Commerce). 2019. “Quarterly Retail E-Commerce Sales: Second Quarter 2019.” Press release. August 19. https://www.census.gov/retail/mrts/www/data/pdf/ec_current.pdf.