The New Urbanism has captured the imagination of the American public like no urban planning movement in decades. Amid great fanfare, New Urbanists are seeking to redefine the nature of the American metropolis by reintroducing traditional notions of neighborhood design and fitting those ideas into a variety of urban and suburban settings.
The New Urbanism began as a reaction to conventional suburban planning as it has been practiced in the United States since the 1940s. New Urbanists view the decentralized, auto-oriented suburb as a recipe for disaster. They blame these suburbs for ever-increasing congestion on arterial roads, a lack of meaningful civic life, the loss of open space, limited opportunities for children and others without cars, and a general discontent among suburbanites.
As the latest in a long line of reform movements that have sought to establish new planning and design principles that may be applied to metropolitan areas and, especially, to new suburban neighborhoods, the New Urbanism owes much to the City Beautiful and Garden City movements of the early twentieth century. The âneotraditionalâ view of urban planning that began in the early 1980s with the widely publicized new town of Seaside, Florida, has since matured into the New Urbanism movement of the 1990s.
Many different sets of planning and design principles are circulating around the New Urbanism banner, but most definitions include the following ideas:
In addition, most New Urbanists claim to be committed to the concepts of strong citizen participation, affordable housing, and social and economic diversity, though these ideas do not fit so neatly onto a list of neighborhood design characteristics. In its rhetoric, the New Urbanism strives for a kind of utopian social ideal, although most New Urbanists focus on a communityâs physical infrastructure in the belief that community design can create or influence particular social patterns.
Promises and Problems
The New Urbanism is still in its infancy, and there remains a great deal of skepticism about what its proponents seek to achieve. Although millions of Americans live in âold urbanâ neighborhoods, fewer than 2,000 live in new neighborhoods built strictly according to New Urbanist principles. Many critics believe that, while the New Urbanism contains many attractive ideas, it may have difficulty dealing with a wide range of contemporary issues that generally fall into five broad categories: scale, transportation, planning and codes, regionalism, and marketing.
Scale: The traditional neighborhoods that the New Urbanists hope to replicate are characterized by compactness, small scale and diversity of building types. But, increasingly, the economic and lifestyle demands of urban and even suburban life seem to require facilities on a massive scale, such as big-box retailers and their industrial equivalents. Many New Urbanists concede that large-scale operations will inevitably be auto-oriented, but they still claim their ideas can work for smaller-scale retailers.
Transportation: Transportation is perhaps the most contentious single aspect of the New Urbanism, which is often âsoldâ to public officials based on its supposed transportation benefits. Assertions such as reduced dependence on the automobile, increased transit use, shorter trips, and a more flexible hierarchy of streets make common sense, but they are not yet backed up by much empirical evidence. Perhaps the best that can be said is that New Urbanist ideas may be a necessary but not sufficient pre-condition to change the way people travel.
Planning and Codes: New Urbanists often criticize American development codes as perpetuating suburbiaâs auto-oriented nature. Codes regarding segregated land uses, street widths, setbacks and other requirements are often the province of local officials, such as fire chiefs and traffic engineers, who are loathe to change them. Some New Urbanists have worked successfully with code enforcers to find common ground in order to permit unconventional projects to proceed, yet, many aspects of planning and codes remain incompatible and contentious.
Regionalism: New Urbanists have struggled to move the public perception of their movement beyond the simple idea of designing suburban neighborhoods toward focusing on metropolitan areas. Proponents and critics alike fear that widespread application of the movementâs design principles apart from a regional context may simply cause suburban sprawl to be replaced by âNew Urbanâ sprawl. Many New Urbanists advocate urban and suburban redevelopment and infill projects, and some have expressed support for such regulatory tools as urban growth boundaries.
Marketing: Many previous reform movements in urban planning have failed because their ideas did not enjoy widespread acceptance in the marketplace, and New Urbanism is facing a similar challenge. Real estate marketing experts say that many New Urbanist projects proceeded with little market research because the developers (who were New Urbanist devotees themselves) simply believed the idea would sell itself. Now they see that selling New Urbanism requires at least as much marketing effort as selling a conventional subdivision. New Urbanists have also learned the hard way that the promise of a diversified community, with many types and prices of homes, retail stores within walking distance, and other community amenities, requires a highly sophisticated effort to bring all the components âon lineâ in the right sequence.
A Powerful Idea
Although it is often advertised as a panacea, the New Urbanism is only one alternative to suburban sprawl. It will probably function most successfully in a broader planning context that may include significant investments in transit, incentives to reinvest in the inner city, and disincentives to build at the metropolitan fringe.
At the same time, it is important to appreciate the power of the New Urbanism as an idea. Perhaps the most refreshing aspect of this movement is that it promotes a positive image of âtown lifeâ that includes the public as well as the private realm. In a world where a âlack of communityâ is often blamed for many social ills, this is no small achievement.
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William Fulton is editor of California Planning and Development Report, contributing editor of Planning magazine, and a member of the Lincoln Institute Editorial Advisory Committee. This article is excerpted in part from the Lincoln Institute Policy Focus Report, The New Urbanism.
Las ciudades de AmĂ©rica Latina han liderado la implementaciĂłn de Sistemas de Transporte PĂșblico Masivo de Autobuses tipo BRT (llamados asĂ por sus siglas en inglĂ©s por Bus Rapid Transit), un modo de transporte que generalmente se caracteriza por el desarrollo de infraestructura que dan prioridad al transporte pĂșblico en relaciĂłn con el transporte en otros tipos de vehĂculos, ofrece la posibilidad de pagar la tarifa antes de tomar el autobĂșs y permite un rĂĄpido acceso al mismo. MĂĄs de 45 ciudades de AmĂ©rica Latina han realizado inversiones en sistemas tipo BRT, lo que representa el 63,6 por ciento del nĂșmero de pasajeros en sistemas tipo BRT a nivel mundial.
En Curitiba, Brasil, el sistema tipo BRT ha sido implementado como una herramienta para fomentar un proceso de desarrollo urbano que se caracteriza en apoyar y fortalecer el sistema de transporte pĂșblico en general. En el año 1972, la ciudad incorporĂł una red de vĂas exclusivas para autobuses y estimulĂł a lo largo de los cinco ejes principales del sistema tipo desarrollos del suelo de alta densidad y usos mixtos, estos ejes estructurales han guiado el proceso de crecimiento urbano de Curitiba por dĂ©cadas y convergen en el centro de la ciudad. La nueva lĂnea verde de Curitiba se fundamenta en principios similares: fomentar el desarrollo urbano que mejora y facilita el uso del sistema de transporte pĂșblico masivo. El caso de Curitiba sugiere que el Ă©xito del sistema tipo BRT puede ser mayor a travĂ©s de la concentraciĂłn del desarrollo del suelo a lo largo del eje del sistema de transporte pĂșblico masivo. En otros estudios, se ha investigado si el sistema tipo BRT puede realmente estimular el desarrollo del suelo.
El tĂ©rmino âdesarrollo orientado al trĂĄnsitoâ (DOT) âen inglĂ©s, Transit Oriented Development o TODâ se utiliza para describir el desarrollo urbano que se caracteriza por ser compacto con mezcla de usos del suelo, entre los cuales generalmente se encuentran los de tipo residencial, comercial y de oficinas, asĂ como un entorno urbano de alta calidad para los peatones que efectivamente tienen acceso al transporte pĂșblico. Se considera que dicho desarrollo urbano facilita o respalda el transporte pĂșblico, ya que puede concentrar la demanda a lo largo de las troncales y/o corredores de transporte, equilibrar los flujos de pasajeros y generar oportunidades para garantizar viajes de carĂĄcter multimodal. La evidencia de la experiencia en los Estados Unidos en este tema sugiere que las personas que residen en ĂĄreas servidas por DOT utilizan mĂĄs el transporte pĂșblico en comparaciĂłn con otros viajeros frecuentes. Aunque la mayorĂa de los DOT se han construido alrededor de los sistemas de transporte pĂșblico sobre rieles, el concepto del desarrollo urbano orientado hacia el transporte pĂșblico tambiĂ©n puede constituirse en una estrategia para complementar y mejorar los sistemas tipo BRT.
TipologĂas de DOT
Tanto investigadores como profesionales han desarrollado una variedad de tipologĂas de desarrollo urbano orientado al transporte pĂșblico DOT, aunque ninguna de ellas se ha enfocado especĂficamente en los sistemas tipo BRT. El tipo de desarrollo urbano que podrĂa darse en torno a las estaciones de los sistemas tipo BRT es un factor fundamental para la planificaciĂłn del desarrollo alrededor de las estaciones o terminales, comprender de quĂ© manera el DOT es adecuado dentro de una estrategia de crecimiento regional, crear conciencia y fomentar la participaciĂłn del pĂșblico en general en el desarrollo urbano y, finalmente, aumentar las posibilidades de Ă©xito del sistema.
La literatura acerca de los DOT sugiere la existencia de diferencias importantes en relaciĂłn con las caracterĂsticas y los tipos de este desarrollo urbano. Una aproximaciĂłn se sustenta en la experiencia de los planificadores, arquitectos y urbanistas. Peter Calthorpe (1993) utilizĂł el concepto de urbanizaciĂłn para identificar los DOT de carĂĄcter urbano y de escala barrial con caracterĂsticas tales como la calidad del servicio de transporte pĂșblico, los usos del suelo, la intensidad del desarrollo y el carĂĄcter del diseño urbano. La localizaciĂłn geogrĂĄfica de estos DOT varĂa desde ĂĄreas de desarrollo con terrenos aĂșn no urbanizados hasta ĂĄreas de redesarrollo y renovaciĂłn urbana. Una tipologĂa similar desarrollada en el estado de Florida (Estados Unidos) en el año 2011 no sĂłlo se enfocĂł en la escala y tamaño del centro de actividades (regional, comunitario o barrial), sino tambiĂ©n incluyĂł otra dimensiĂłn relacionada con los modo de transporte (Renaissance Planning Group, 2011).
Dittmar y Poticha (2004) combinaron los conceptos de localizaciĂłn geogrĂĄfica y urbanizaciĂłn en la definiciĂłn de tipologĂas DOT, las cuales estĂĄn denominadas como centro urbano, barrio urbano, centro suburbano, barrio suburbano, zona de trĂĄnsito a escala barrial y ciudad dormitorio. Se ha establecido el mismo enfoque en aplicaciones mĂĄs recientes de tipologĂas de DOT. Por ejemplo, la ciudad de Sacramento, California definiĂł las tipologĂas de DOT como nĂșcleo o centro urbano, centro de empleo, centro residencial, centro dormitorio y troncal de autobuses con mejoras (Steer Davies Gleave, 2009). La organizaciĂłn Reconnecting America desarrollĂł las siguientes tipologĂas para el ĂĄrea de la BahĂa de San Francisco, California: centro regional, centro urbano, centro suburbano, centro de ciudad de trĂĄnsito, barrio urbano, barrio de trĂĄnsito y corredor de uso mixto (ComisiĂłn Metropolitana de PlanificaciĂłn 2007). En Denver, Colorado, el Centro para el Desarrollo Urbano Orientado hacia el Transporte PĂșblico (Center for Transit Oriented Development – CTOD por sus siglas en inglĂ©s, 2008) desarrollĂł una guĂa para la planificaciĂłn de ĂĄreas alrededor de estaciones de transporte pĂșblico que incorporĂł una tipologĂa adicional definida como usos especiales y/o distrito de empleo.
Una aproximaciĂłn alternativa para identificar tipologĂas a priori consiste en utilizar tĂ©cnicas de agrupaciĂłn de datos con el fin de examinar los mismos y la evidencia recolectada de un entorno urbano determinado. Por ejemplo, las tipologĂas de desarrollo urbano del entorno de 25 estaciones de metro que tuvieron un desarrollo integrado en Hong Kong se componen de cinco tipos: edificios de oficinas de gran altura, edificios residenciales de gran altura, desarrollos residenciales a gran escala, desarrollos de uso mixto a gran escala y edificios residenciales de mediana altura (Cervero y Murakami, 2009). En otro estudio se utilizĂł el anĂĄlisis de conglomerados con el objetivo de desarrollar una definiciĂłn espacio-funcional de tipologĂas de las ĂĄreas del entorno urbano de las estaciones del tren ligero de Phoenix, Arizona (Atkinson-Palombo y Kuby, 2011). Las tipologĂas identificadas en el estudio fueron las siguientes: centros de empleo, ĂĄreas de uso mixto de medianos ingresos, nodos de estacionamiento para pasajeros frecuentes, ĂĄreas de alta densidad poblacional o alta presencia de zonas de alquiler, y ĂĄreas que presentan concentraciĂłn de pobreza urbana.
Un Ășltimo conjunto de tipologĂas emergentes elaborado por el CTOD representa el entorno urbano construido introduciendo una dimensiĂłn de implementaciĂłn o desempeño. Por lo general, estas tipologĂas se convierten en una matriz de dos dimensiones, donde los tipos del entorno urbano construido se encuentran en un eje y las medidas de implementaciĂłn y disponibilidad en el otro. Estas tipologĂas, que se desarrollaron para Portland, OregĂłn y Baltimore, Maryland, en los Estados Unidos, se utilizan con el fin de guiar inversiones de capital y promover cambios de polĂtica; ademĂĄs, resultan particularmente Ăștiles para generar conciencia en el pĂșblico en general con respecto a los beneficios en tĂ©rminos de viajes y desplazamientos que ofrece el desarrollo urbano orientado hacia el transporte pĂșblico â DOT (Deng y Nelson, 2012).
Ciudades estudiadas y recolecciĂłn de datos
Con el objetivo de discernir la condiciĂłn del desarrollo urbano orientado a los sistemas tipo BRT en AmĂ©rica Latina, el estudio que llevamos a cabo investigĂł el entorno urbano construido que caracteriza las estaciones y terminales de sistemas tipo BRT en siete ciudades (tabla 1). Para ello, identificamos grandes ciudades en la regiĂłn donde sistemas tipo BRT han estado en operaciĂłn durante por lo menos cinco años: BogotĂĄ (Colombia); Curitiba (Brasil); GoiĂąnia (Brasil); Ciudad de Guatemala (Guatemala); Guayaquil (Ecuador); Quito (Ecuador); y el ĂĄrea metropolitana de SĂŁo Paulo (Brasil), especĂficamente la troncal âABDâ. En conjunto, estas ciudades representan el 16 por ciento del nĂșmero de pasajeros en sistemas tipo BRT a nivel mundial, y el 31 por ciento del nĂșmero de pasajeros en sistemas tipo BRT en AmĂ©rica Latina. El estudio incluyĂł dos tipos de paradas: estaciones, es decir, las paradas comunes del sistema BRT, y terminales, es decir, las paradas que se encuentran al final de una troncal o aquellas en donde se realizan transbordos importantes de una troncal del sistema BRT a otra. Con el apoyo de planificadores urbanos en las ciudades seleccionadas, identificamos un grupo de estaciones y terminales especĂficas representativas del sistema BRT al interior de cada ciudad, independientemente de que el desarrollo urbano estuviera orientado al sistema tipo BRT o no. En definitiva, 51 estaciones y 31 terminales fueron identificadas para adelantar la investigaciĂłn.
Debido a la falta de datos en comĂșn con una alta definiciĂłn espacial entre las ciudades, fue necesario recolectar datos in situ utilizando un formato de recolecciĂłn diseñado para obtener informaciĂłn de las caracterĂsticas del entorno urbano en dos niveles: calles (segmentos compuestos por una manzana o cuadra) y manzanas o cuadras urbanas. El tĂ©rmino âsegmentoâ se definiĂł como el tramo de una calle entre dos intersecciones. El formato de recolecciĂłn se estructura en los siguientes campos acerca del entorno urbano:
Con respecto a las estaciones, estudiamos segmentos de calles al interior de un radio de 250 metros, tomando como centro la estaciĂłn del sistema tipo BRT. Para las terminales, estudiamos el ĂĄrea comprendida en un radio de 500 metros tomando como centro la terminal del BRT. En siete casos en la Ciudad de Guatemala y un caso en GoiĂąnia, estudiamos dos estaciones (en lugar de sĂłlo una) debido a que el sistema de autobuses se dividiĂł en dos calles paralelas, cada una de sentido Ășnico, lo cual implica la localizaciĂłn de estaciones paralelas o âhermanasâ que se complementan al brindar acceso al sistema en ambos sentidos. En estos casos, el ĂĄrea que se analizĂł es un poco mayor al radio de 250 metros. AdemĂĄs de los datos recolectados en campo, utilizamos datos secundarios suministrados por parte de las autoridades municipales, tales como la poblaciĂłn censada dentro del ĂĄrea de estudio y la distancia de las estaciones y terminales a los principales centros de actividades en cada ciudad.
Estudiamos en total 10.632 segmentos y 2.963 manzanas alrededor de 82 estaciones y terminales de los sistemas tipo BRT en las siete ciudades. Debido a que la superficie de las estaciones estudiadas era similar, la comparación entre segmentos y manzanas por estación/terminal ofrece información acerca de qué tan compactas son dichas åreas en cada ciudad y su nivel de conectividad. Una estación en Guayaquil presentó la mayor cantidad de segmentos (102,1), mientras que las estaciones en São Paulo (Corredor ABD) presentaron la menor cantidad de segmentos (43,1). Detectamos un patrón similar al examinar los segmentos por manzana.
Todos los datos fueron agregados al nivel de estaciĂłn/terminal. Los datos recolectados a nivel de segmento se agregaron con el fin de medir en porcentajes la presencia o ausencia de una o varias caracterĂsticas del entorno urbano de cada estaciĂłn/terminal. Los datos recolectados al nivel de manzana se agregaron con el fin de medir con respecto al ĂĄrea bruta la densidad de las caracterĂsticas en el entorno urbano de la estaciĂłn/terminal. Finalmente, calculamos 38 variables que caracterizan el entorno urbano construido alrededor de cada estaciĂłn/terminal.
TipologĂas de estaciones identificadas en los sistemas tipo BRT
Debido a la gran cantidad de variables (38) y el nĂșmero relativamente bajo de observaciones (82), llevamos a cabo un anĂĄlisis de factores a nivel exploratorio con el fin de generar un subconjunto de variables y estimar sus puntajes factoriales. El anĂĄlisis de factores se basa en la correlaciĂłn de los datos para identificar grupos de variables que son mĂĄs similares entre sĂ. Las 38 variables se redujeron a 9 factores para su posterior anĂĄlisis:
Al examinar los factores y sus estadĂsticas descriptivas, surgieron varias observaciones. En primer lugar, la intensidad del desarrollo alrededor de las estaciones y terminales tiende a ser relativamente baja. Por ejemplo, sĂłlo el 8 por ciento de los segmentos posee desarrollos de alta densidad, mientras que el 31 por ciento de los segmentos presenta un desarrollo de baja densidad. En segundo lugar, el redesarrollo como estrategia para fomentar el desarrollo urbano orientado al sistema tipo BRT parece ser fundamental en las ciudades estudiadas. Solamente el 8 por ciento de los segmentos muestran bajos niveles de consolidaciĂłn, mientras que el 11 por ciento de los mismos presentan lotes vacantes. En contraste, casi la mitad de los segmentos muestran desarrollos con un alto nivel de consolidaciĂłn. Este resultado sugiere que existen pocas oportunidades para que los desarrollos orientados hacia el sistema tipo BRT se lleven a cabo en suelos vacantes o por desarrollar. En tercer lugar, en relaciĂłn con el estacionamiento de vehĂculos, cabe destacar que en el 26 por ciento de los segmentos encontramos estacionamiento de vehĂculos sobre la calle, mientras que el 30 por ciento de segmentos muestran algĂșn tipo de actividad comercial y de venta minorista con estacionamiento para vehĂculos particulares (fuera de la vĂa pĂșblica). Este hecho pone de manifiesto el desafĂo de administrar la oferta (y la demanda) de espacios de estacionamiento y, asimismo, podrĂa indicar que el entorno urbano alrededor de las estaciones de los sistemas tipo BRT por lo general no resulta tan apto para los peatones y usuarios del sistema como deberĂa.
El funcionamiento de cada estaciĂłn en relaciĂłn con los nueve factores se combinĂł con la densidad poblacional y con tres variables adicionales que no presentaron correlaciĂłn alguna de las demĂĄs variables en el anĂĄlisis de factores. Con estos nueve factores y las cuatro variables adicionales llevamos a cabo un anĂĄlisis de conglomerados con el fin de determinar cuĂĄles eran las estaciones y terminales que podrĂan agruparse. El anĂĄlisis de conglomerados se utilizĂł como base para definir la tipologĂa, anĂĄlisis a travĂ©s del cual se identificaron 10 tipos de desarrollo urbano en torno a las paradas de los sistemas tipo BRT (tabla 2).
Al examinar la tipologĂa por ciudad, descubrimos que dos tipos de paradas capturan factores especĂficos de dos ciudades: el centro histĂłrico de Quito y varias estaciones caracterĂsticas de Ciudad de Guatemala (ciudad que posee el sistema tipo BRT mĂĄs reciente entre los sistemas estudiados). El hecho de que sea nuevo y de que funciona en partes de la ciudad bastante consolidadas podrĂa explicar por quĂ© las estaciones se agrupan en el anĂĄlisis de conglomerados. Los ocho tipos de estaciones restantes representan un amplio rango de estaciones entre varias ciudades.
Cinco atributos parecen diferenciar las distintas estaciones: (1) desarrollos multifamiliares con y sin orientaciĂłn hacia el sistema tipo BRT ; (2) viviendas unifamiliares adosadas que, en algunos casos, se construyen de manera informal y tienen acceso a algunas actividades comerciales, generalmente lejos de los centros de mayor actividad de la ciudad; (3) alta densidad poblacional, infraestructura para peatones y acceso a parques y espacios verdes, generalmente lejos de los centros de mayor actividad de la ciudad; (4) estaciones con la presencia de equipamientos de uso institucional y espacios verdes, no necesariamente abiertos al pĂșblico; y (5) estaciones con barreras fĂsicas por la convergencia de varias calles y avenidas con un gran volumen de trĂĄfico.
Las tipologĂas de desarrollo urbano identificadas comprenden una amplia gama de posibles entornos urbanos construidos alrededor de las estaciones de los sistemas tipo BRT. La tipologĂa de desarrollo denominado centro satĂ©lite orientado hacia el sistema tipo BRT, que ilustramos con el caso de BogotĂĄ, presenta un nivel importante de actividades comerciales, instalaciones pĂșblicas, parques e infraestructura para peatones, y a su vez presenta una mezcla de viviendas residenciales multifamiliares y viviendas unifamiliares adosadas (figura 1). Tomadas en conjunto, estas caracterĂsticas se acercan mucho al ideal de un desarrollo urbano orientado al transporte pĂșblico â DOT. De manera similar, la tipologĂa representada por la estaciĂłn del centro histĂłrico de la ciudad de Quito posee tambiĂ©n muchos atributos de un desarrollo urbano orientado al transporte pĂșblico â DOT. La cuestiĂłn sobre si la presencia de estas tipologĂas se traduce en una mayor cantidad de pasajeros en el sistema tipo BRT continĂșa siendo una pregunta de investigaciĂłn empĂrica por examinar.
Las estaciones dentro de las tipologĂas centro comunitario y centro barrial parecen ajustarse apropiadamente con la definiciĂłn de Calthorpe (1993) acerca de DOT comunitarios y barriales. Entre los casos analizados, las estaciones en la tipologĂa centro comunitario presentan algunas viviendas unifamiliares adosadas y usos mixtos, tales como usos institucionales que, por lo general, estĂĄn destinados a funcionar en ĂĄreas prĂłximas a la ciudad. Las estaciones en la tipologĂa centro barrial presentan una mayor intensidad de desarrollos residenciales, especĂficamente viviendas unifamiliares adosadas. Las estaciones que se encuentran dentro de las tipologĂas definidas como corredores parecen coincidir con el concepto de mejoramiento urbano de los corredores de autobĂșs desarrollado en Sacramento y San Francisco, California, aunque en nuestros datos podemos distinguir claramente entre corredores dominados por usos institucionales y corredores que simplemente presentan una amplia gama de usos mixtos.
A travĂ©s de las tipologĂas tambiĂ©n identificamos desafĂos y oportunidades para mejorar la capacidad de un desarrollo urbano orientado al sistema tipo BRT. SĂłlo las estaciones dentro de las tipologĂas centro de ciudad y centro satĂ©lite orientados al BRT presentaron una integraciĂłn adecuada entre el entorno peatonal y el transporte pĂșblico. La tipologĂa centro urbano, como por ejemplo el de Curitiba, estĂĄ listo para el mejoramiento en su integraciĂłn con el sistema tipo BRT, ya que posee las densidades y los usos mixtos apropiados para promoverlo (figura 2). La tipologĂa conformada por las estaciones Nexo, tal como se presenta en GoiĂąnia, representa un desafĂo frecuente para los planificadores urbanos municipales (figura 3). Estas estaciones y terminales deberĂan ubicarse de manera que faciliten los transbordos intermodales, aunque esto por lo general implica sacrificar el acceso de los usuarios a cada lugar y la orientaciĂłn del desarrollo hacia el transporte pĂșblico en la estaciĂłn y/o terminal.
En comparaciĂłn con otras tipologĂas, no encontramos evidencia sĂłlida de estaciones relacionadas con centros de empleo o pasajeros frecuentes. Esto puede ser resultado del precario papel que juegan los usos mixtos del suelo entre las estaciones y terminales, ya que los usos del suelo cumplen un papel importante en otras tipologĂas. Una explicaciĂłn por este fenĂłmeno podrĂa ser el alto nivel de usos mixtos que habitualmente se encuentran en las ciudades de AmĂ©rica Latina, lo que contribuye a un bajo nivel de variaciĂłn entre las diferentes ĂĄreas de las estaciones y terminales estudiadas.
En cuanto a las polĂticas de vivienda, las tipologĂas correspondientes al centro barrial y ĂĄreas verdes presentan una combinaciĂłn interesante de distancia a los centros de mayor actividad en la ciudad y presencia de viviendas para hogares de bajos recursos. Dado que las paradas se encuentran lejos de los centros de mayor actividad, es mucho mĂĄs probable que presenten espacios verdes, viviendas de interĂ©s social y, en algunos casos, viviendas informales. Las ciudades de AmĂ©rica Latina suelen exhibir un gradiente de precios del suelo bastante pronunciado, donde las ĂĄreas con acceso privilegiado a los centros de mayor actividad tienen precios mĂĄs altos que las ĂĄreas perifĂ©ricas. Estas dos tipologĂas de estaciĂłn del sistema tipo BRT plantean preguntas sobre las posibles consecuencias que pueda tener el sistema tipo BRT en cuanto a incrementar la segregaciĂłn de viviendas y la carga financiera en tĂ©rminos de movilidad para las personas de bajos recursos.
AnĂĄlisis de las tipologĂas de estaciĂłn y prospectiva de la planificaciĂłn
Nuestro anĂĄlisis de 82 paradas de los sistemas tipo BRT en siete ciudades de AmĂ©rica Latina revelĂł una variedad de patrones de desarrollo urbano. Algunas tipologĂas poseen atributos que son coherentes con los principios del desarrollo urbano orientado hacia el transporte pĂșblico â DOT. Otras tipologĂas presentan una gran cantidad de usos del suelo, vĂas e infraestructura, asĂ como caracterĂsticas de desarrollo que no promueven un desarrollo urbano orientado hacia el sistema tipo BRT. No obstante, otras tipologĂas muestran un proceso de desarrollo aĂșn en curso, con una cantidad importante de terrenos vacantes y desarrollos todavĂa en proceso de consolidaciĂłn. Finalmente, algunas estaciones parecen captar las condiciones urbanas que surgen en muchas ciudades latinoamericanas: presencia de viviendas informales que se encuentran lejos de los centros de mayor actividad; desarrollos comerciales a gran escala, generalmente del tipo centro comercial o grandes superficies, los cuales generan espacios privados para el comercio y, en algunos casos, espacios de uso pĂșblico; y una relativa carencia de espacios pĂșblicos al aire libre. Esta informaciĂłn es Ăștil para facilitar procesos de planificaciĂłn de un desarrollo urbano orientados hacia los sistemas tipo BRT, dado el rĂĄpido crecimiento de sistemas tipo BRT en las Ășltimas dos dĂ©cadas. Unas 146 ciudades en todo el mundo presentan en la actualidad algĂșn tipo de sistema tipo con prioridad para autobuses.
Comprender el tipo de desarrollo urbano que podrĂa generarse en el entorno de las estaciones de sistemas tipo BRT es fundamental para planificar las ĂĄreas de las estaciones e identificar de quĂ© manera el desarrollo urbano orientado hacia el transporte pĂșblico â DOT encaja dentro de una estrategia de crecimiento regional. Robert Cervero (1998) sostiene que toda inversiĂłn en transporte debe estar precedida y dirigida por una visiĂłn de desarrollo urbano exitosa, y esta planificaciĂłn es necesaria si se van a generar subcentros alrededor de las estaciones de los sistemas de transporte. Cervero refuerza su argumento con la notable experiencia y hallazgos obtenidos en Copenhague, Estocolmo y Singapur, y sugiere que es fundamental tomar medidas para desarrollar visiones tanto a escala regional como de las estaciones de los sistemas de transporte (entorno urbano alrededor de las estaciones) para garantizar el Ă©xito hacia futuro del desarrollo urbano orientado a los sistemas de transporte pĂșblico â DOT. De hecho, las tipologĂas de DOT en vĂas de expansiĂłn en los Estados Unidos estĂĄn basadas en parte en su capacidad de sostener una planificaciĂłn del DOT a largo plazo. Por ejemplo, la tipologĂa de Denver, Colorado resultĂł de vital importancia a la hora de crear una visiĂłn del uso y la planificaciĂłn del suelo para las ĂĄreas de las estaciones del tren ligero, tanto las existentes como las futuras.
Las visiones acerca de quĂ© tipos de desarrollo urbano pueden darse en el futuro y dĂłnde tendrĂan lugar son fundamentales en el proceso de planificaciĂłn y, con frecuencia, hacen parte de los escenarios definidos en ejercicios de prospectiva, en los cuales estas tipologĂas deben ser tenidas en cuenta por parte de los tomadores de decisiones, los planificadores y el pĂșblico en general. La visiĂłn en prospectiva en el proceso de planificaciĂłn es, por lo general, una condiciĂłn previa para que cualquier ejercicio de planificaciĂłn de las ĂĄreas de las estaciones de sistemas tipo definidas como DOT pueda ser efectivo. El Centro para el Desarrollo Urbano Orientado hacia el Transporte PĂșblico (Center for Transit Oriented Development â CTOD por sus siglas en inglĂ©s) sugiere la elaboraciĂłn de un plan que incluya la participaciĂłn ciudadana, la comercializaciĂłn del proyecto y la creaciĂłn de una estrategia regional de DOT. Para poder lograr todos estos aspectos, se necesita una visiĂłn acerca del tipo de desarrollo urbano que puede generarse en el ĂĄrea que es objeto del proceso de planificaciĂłn. Las visiones son particularmente predominantes a la hora de involucrar al pĂșblico en general, ya que pueden presentar de manera tangible los posibles resultados del proceso de planificaciĂłn, lo cual permite tener una mayor comprensiĂłn del impacto de las decisiones acerca de la densidad, la mezcla de usos del suelo y las ĂĄreas de acceso a las estaciones.
El prĂłximo paso en nuestra investigaciĂłn serĂĄ determinar las causas de los diferentes patrones de desarrollo urbano que hemos identificado. En algunos casos, el entorno urbano ha cambiado de forma radical con las inversiones de los sistemas tipo BRT, mientras que en otros casos no se han producido mayores cambios. AquĂ entran en juego tanto las fuerzas de mercado como la regulaciĂłn del desarrollo urbano, los cuales determinan en gran medida el resultado del desarrollo y la revitalizaciĂłn. Algunas de las medidas para liberar el potencial de desarrollo de los predios y ĂĄreas cercanas a las estaciones de los sistemas tipo BRT consisten en cambiar la regulaciĂłn de los usos del suelo, flexibilizar los lĂmites de densidad o reducir los requisitos de estacionamiento de vehĂculos. Esta estrategia coordinada entre la planificaciĂłn del uso del suelo y el sector transporte es la piedra angular del desarrollo urbano orientado hacia el transporte pĂșblico â DOT.
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Sobre los autores
Daniel A. RodrĂguez es profesor de PlanificaciĂłn Urbana y Regional, profesor asociado adjunto de EpidemiologĂa y director del Programa de Transporte Carolina de la Universidad de Carolina del Norte en Chapel Hill. Su ĂĄrea de investigaciĂłn se enfoca en la relaciĂłn recĂproca entre el medio ambiente construido (que incluye los sistemas tipo BRT) y el comportamiento de los pasajeros.
Erik Vergel tovar es becario Fulbright y estudiante de doctorado en PlanificaciĂłn Urbana y Regional en la Universidad de Carolina del Norte en Chapel Hill. Arquitecto con estudios de maestrĂa en GestiĂłn, PlanificaciĂłn y Desarrollo Urbano (grado con honores) en el Instituto de Estudios de Vivienda y Desarrollo Urbano (IHS) de la Universidad Erasmus de Rotterdam, PaĂses Bajos. Su ĂĄrea de investigaciĂłn se enfoca en las relaciones entre el transporte urbano (en particular, los sistemas tipo BRT), las polĂticas de suelo, desarrollo urbano y vivienda para grupos de bajos ingresos.
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Referencias
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Calthorpe, P. 1993. The new American metropolis: Ecology, community, and the American dream. Nueva York: Princeton Architectural Press.
Cervero, R., 1998. The transit metropolis: A global inquiry. Washington, DC: Island Press.
Cervero, R. y J. Murakami. 2009. âRail and property development in Hong Kong: Experiences and extensionsâ. En Urban Studies 46(10): 2019â2043.
CTOD. 2008. Station area planning: How to make great transit-oriented places. Washington, DC: Reconnecting America.
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Steer Davies Gleave. 2009. âSacramento regional transit: A transit action planâ. Sacramento, CA: Sacramento Regional Transit.
Han transcurrido mĂĄs de 20 años desde que un megaproyecto impulsado por el gobierno comenzĂł a transformar a Puerto Madero, el sector mĂĄs antiguo del distrito portuario que se encuentra en la desembocadura del RĂo de la Plata en Buenos Aires, Argentina. Habiendo sido anteriormente un centro de decadencia que fomentaba el deterioro del centro adyacente, Puerto Madero es, hoy en dĂa, un Ăcono turĂstico y un centro de progreso, ya que atrae tanto a la poblaciĂłn local como a los visitantes hacia sus parques y actividades culturales. En Puerto Madero viven aproximadamente 5.000 habitantes nuevos y ha generado 45.000 puestos de trabajo en el ĂĄrea de servicios. Alberga numerosos referentes arquitectĂłnicos nuevos, incluyendo el Puente de la Mujer, de Santiago Calatrava, y la casa matriz de YPF, obra de CĂ©sar Pelli. AdemĂĄs, el redesarrollo al que se sometiĂł el puerto ha contribuido a la reactivaciĂłn del centro de la ciudad, influyendo en las tendencias de desarrollo en toda la capital argentina.
Puerto Madero abarca 170 hectĂĄreas en la zona cercana a la casa de gobierno (la Casa Rosada) en el centro y fue uno de los primeros proyectos urbanos de reacondicionamiento en AmĂ©rica Latina a esta escala y nivel de complejidad. Fue un proyecto concebido como parte de una estrategia de desarrollo mĂĄs amplia en todo el centro de la ciudad, que tambiĂ©n incluĂa cambios en las normas sobre el uso del suelo, el reacondicionamiento de edificios y la construcciĂłn de viviendas de interĂ©s social en ĂĄreas tradicionales. En el presente artĂculo se analizan dos dĂ©cadas de evidencias y experiencias respecto de este proyecto a fin de examinar hasta quĂ© punto Puerto Madero ha logrado sus objetivos principales: contribuir a la reducciĂłn de patrones de desarrollo no deseados en la ciudad, afirmar a esta zona como el principal centro de la ciudad de Buenos Aires, estimular la economĂa de la ciudad y mejorar las condiciones de vida de todos los porteños.
El puerto en crisis
Puerto Madero fue abandonado como puerto a principios del siglo XX cuando todas las operaciones se transfirieron al Puerto Nuevo. Hacia fines de la dĂ©cada de 1980, Puerto Madero habĂa sufrido varias dĂ©cadas de abandono y desuso. Los terrenos eran propiedad de la AdministraciĂłn General de Puertos federal, pero tanto el gobierno de la ciudad como el gobierno nacional tenĂan jurisdicciĂłn sobre la planificaciĂłn de esta zona. De manera similar, el Gran Buenos Aires, que aloja al 35 por ciento de la poblaciĂłn argentina y produce el 46 por ciento del PIB, se encuentra gobernado por una superposiciĂłn de instituciones que, con frecuencia, enfrentan problemas para trabajar en forma coordinada. Con el fin de simplificar este gobierno interjurisdiccional, se constituyĂł una empresa pĂșblica para gestionar el proyecto, cuyas acciones se dividen equitativamente entre el gobierno nacional y el gobierno de la ciudad. En 1989, el gobierno federal transfiriĂł la propiedad de este sector del puerto a la nueva sociedad, la CorporaciĂłn Antiguo Puerto Madero (CAPM).
Una vez recibida la transferencia de los terrenos del gobierno federal, el rol de la CAPM consistiĂł en desarrollar el plan para este sector, definir un modelo financiero autofinanciado, encargarse de las mejoras por realizar en el sector asociadas con el proyecto, comercializar los terrenos y supervisar el proceso de desarrollo de acuerdo con los plazos y las pautas establecidas en el plan maestro. A diferencia de lo que ocurre con otras empresas similares en otras partes del mundo, que generalmente cuentan con un sustancial financiamiento pĂșblico o acceso al crĂ©dito, la CAPM, por decreto, no recibirĂa recurso pĂșblico alguno aparte de la transferencia de los terrenos y generarĂa sus propios ingresos para cubrir los costos operativos. El redesarrollo del puerto no podrĂa haberse llevado a cabo de otra manera, ya que el gobierno federal estaba abocado a la recuperaciĂłn fiscal y la creaciĂłn de puestos de trabajo en medio de una crisis econĂłmica nacional.
Contexto y cronologĂa del megaproyecto
Tal como ocurre en la mayorĂa de las ciudades latinoamericanas, el desplazamiento de actividades del centro tradicional de la ciudad de Buenos Aires habĂa reducido el uso del sistema de transporte pĂșblico y habĂa dado como resultado un lento deterioro de los edificios del patrimonio histĂłrico, muchos de los cuales se habĂan convertido en edificios de viviendas subestĂĄndar. La propuesta de redesarrollo de Puerto Madero fue parte de una estrategia mĂĄs amplia concebida por la ciudad para proteger el patrimonio, promover el desarrollo en el centro, estimular la economĂa de la zona y contribuir a la reducciĂłn de estos patrones de asentamiento no deseados.
El desarrollo tuvo lugar en cuatro etapas. Durante la primera etapa (1989â1992), la CAPM vendiĂł las antiguas propiedades que se encontraban en el extremo oeste del puerto, con lo que se iniciĂł asĂ el proceso de redesarrollo y se cubrieron los costos iniciales del proyecto. En 1991, el gobierno de la ciudad y la Sociedad de Arquitectos firmaron un convenio para facilitar el Concurso Nacional de Ideas para Puerto Madero.
En el año 1992, los tres equipos ganadores trabajaron en colaboraciĂłn para desarrollar el Proyecto Urbano Preliminar de Puerto Madero. El redesarrollo requiriĂł una nueva geometrĂa de subdivisiĂłn que permitiera llevar a cabo la con-strucciĂłn sin la necesidad de demoler las valiosas estructuras histĂłricas. Muchos de los edificios histĂłricos del puerto, tales como los depĂłsitos, se restaurarĂan para darles nuevas funciones, con lo que se combinarĂa el valioso patrimonio histĂłrico con el nuevo desarrollo.
Durante la segunda etapa (1993â1995), se otorgĂł el contrato del plan maestro a los ganadores del Concurso de Ideas. La propuesta original consistĂa en el desarrollo de 1,5 millones de metros cuadrados de superficie construida, concentrados en una ubicaciĂłn central, con el fin de reactivar el centro de la ciudad. El plan, que contemplaba un horizonte de 20 años, comprendĂa actividades comerciales, establecimientos culturales y recreativos, cafĂ©s, restaurantes, servicios, estudios profesionales y actividades comerciales de mediana envergadura (tales como imprentas y empresas dedicadas a embalaje y depĂłsito), que podrĂan ubicarse adecuadamente en los 16 antiguos depĂłsitos portuarios renovados. A fin de compensar una evidente falta de espacios verdes en los alrededores del centro de la ciudad, se propusieron espacios verdes, tales como un parque central metropolitano, una reserva ecolĂłgica y la rehabilitaciĂłn de la Costanera Sur. Dado el supuesto original de que predominarĂan los edificios de oficinas, la cantidad de unidades habitacionales prevista fue de menos de 3.000 (sin embargo, el uso residencial experimentĂł una mayor demanda, por lo que, en la actualidad, existen aproximadamente 11.000 unidades habitacionales).
Durante la tercera etapa (1996â2000), se realizĂł la mayor parte de las obras pĂșblicas y los gastos del proyecto aumentaron en gran manera junto con las ventas de terrenos. A lo largo de esta etapa, el costo por metro cuadrado de construcciĂłn no variĂł en forma significativa, ya que oscilĂł entre 150 y 300 dĂłlares por metro cuadrado hasta finales de la dĂ©cada (todos los precios mencionados se refieren a dĂłlares estadounidenses). En esta tercera etapa, el perfil de los inversores habĂa evolucionado de un grupo pionero inicial formado por pequeñas y medianas empresas que enfrentaban altos niveles de riesgo (1989â1993) a grandes firmas que invertĂan en productos de eficacia comprobada. Para el año 2001, quedaban pocos terrenos pĂșblicos para vender y la empresa pĂșblica poseĂa suficientes activos lĂquidos para finalizar las obras pĂșblicas necesarias para el proyecto. La cuarta etapa del desarrollo incluye dos fases: de 2001 a 2003, y de 2004 a la actualidad. Al principio, el proyecto sufriĂł las turbulencias econĂłmicas, financieras y polĂticas asociadas con la crisis fiscal de 2001, impulsada por la falta de pago del gobierno respecto de su deuda externa. Durante todo este perĂodo, la CAPM enfrentĂł altos niveles de incertidumbre gubernamental, por lo que las ventas de terrenos se detuvieron. No obstante, con posterioridad a las elecciones presidenciales del año 2003, el paĂs retomĂł las negociaciones internacionales, reestructurĂł su deuda externa y mejorĂł significativamente sus condiciones econĂłmicas.
Al mismo tiempo, la CAPM pudo resolver ciertos litigios que existĂan sobre algunos terrenos, que posteriormente vendiĂł y con cuyos ingresos pudo completar las obras pĂșblicas necesarias en el lugar.
A medida que los terrenos disponibles en Puerto Madero se volvĂan escasos, los desarrolladores recurrieron a las ĂĄreas que rodeaban el centro de la ciudad a modo de sitios alternativos para la inversiĂłn. La escala y complejidad del redesarrollo del puerto atrajo inversores que poseĂan conexiones mĂĄs estrechas con los mercados financieros, tanto nacionales como internacionales. Muchos desarrolladores decidieron invertir en el centro en lugar de los suburbios. De esta manera, el proyecto tuvo Ă©xito al redireccionar las tendencias del mercado para alinearlas con las prioridades de las polĂticas urbanas, un cambio que no hubiera existido sin la intervenciĂłn del estado.
Logros del proyecto
En la actualidad, el proyecto se encuentra casi completo, con aproximadamente 1,5 millones de metros cuadrados de superficie construida, segĂșn lo planificado. Desde el comienzo hasta su finalizaciĂłn, los fondos para el proyecto provinieron completamente de la venta de terrenos y concesiones.
Para el año 2011, la CAPM habĂa vendido aproximadamente 257,7 millones de dĂłlares en propiedades, invertido 113 millones de dĂłlares en obras pĂșblicas, e incurrido en unos gastos generales de cerca de 92 millones de dĂłlares, entre honorarios de gestiĂłn y otros gastos operativos. Los precios inmobiliarios aumentaron de 150 dĂłlares el metro cuadrado a principios de la dĂ©cada de 1990 a 1.200 dĂłlares el metro cuadrado en la actualidad. El proyecto atrajo una cantidad considerable de inversiones del sector privado, ademĂĄs de la transferencia de terrenos del estado.
El proyecto agregĂł cuatro masas de agua de grandes dimensiones (por un total de 39 hectĂĄreas) y 28 hectĂĄreas de espacios verdes al sistema de parques de la ciudad. TambiĂ©n se facilitĂł la apertura de la reserva ecolĂłgica y se renovĂł el acceso a la explanada sur, conocida como la Costanera Sur, diseñada a principios del siglo XX por Jean-Claude Nicolas Forestier, quien tambiĂ©n diseñó el Paseo del Prado en La Habana, Cuba. El centro adyacente representa nuevamente el punto de referencia indiscutido de la actividad pĂșblica, administrativa, financiera y comercial de alto nivel.
Puerto Madero fomentĂł ademĂĄs el crecimiento econĂłmico de la zona que, en Ășltima instancia, se tradujo en una mayor recaudaciĂłn impositiva. Como iniciativa estatal, desencadenĂł mĂĄs de 2,5 mil millones de dĂłlares en inversiones privadas, con un valor actual de mĂĄs de 6 mil millones de dĂłlares. Aunque no tenemos a disposiciĂłn datos contables completos, los ingresos derivados del impuesto a las ganancias societario se estiman en 158 millones de dĂłlares, y los impuestos pagados por la empresa pĂșblica ascienden a 19,86 millones de dĂłlares. Los nuevos propietarios de los inmuebles pagan aproximadamente 12,4 millones de dĂłlares al año en concepto de impuestos inmobiliarios al gobierno de la ciudad. Una vez que haya finalizado la construcciĂłn, se calcula que los ingresos por impuestos inmobiliarios alcanzarĂĄn 24,3 millones de dĂłlares al año.
El proyecto tambiĂ©n estimulĂł el crecimiento del mercado laboral. Al dĂa de hoy, las construcciones privadas en Puerto Madero comprendieron cerca de 450 millones de dĂłlares en costos laborales, es decir, el equivalente a 900.000 meses de trabajo o 3.750 empleos por año, distribuidos en 20 años. Las inversiones del proyecto en obras pĂșblicas generaron 313 empleos por año durante 20 años, ademĂĄs de 26.777 empleos administrativos para el año 2006 y 45.281 empleos en el ĂĄrea de servicios para el año 2010. Estas cifras demuestran el papel vital que este proyecto ha representado en la estimulaciĂłn de la economĂa de la ciudad.
ReducciĂłn de la rentabilidad
A pesar del Ă©xito general de Puerto Madero, para muchos observadores, los resultados sociales no fueron satisfactorios. La causa principal fue la rĂĄpida venta de grandes parcelas de terreno durante el perĂodo de venta mĂĄs dinĂĄmico, es decir, de 1996 a 1999. Algunas de estas parcelas tenĂan el tamaño de una cuadra completa del centro y, en la actualidad, se encuentran ocupadas por torres que funcionan, de alguna manera, como comunidades verticales cerradas. AdemĂĄs, resultĂł necesario que las empresas de mayor envergadura y mejor equipadas se encargaran de los enormes volĂșmenes de construcciĂłn, lo que excluyĂł a las pequeñas y medianas empresas. AsĂ, la morfologĂa de las grandes parcelas de terreno definiĂł esencialmente los tipos de empresa y los tipos de producto que se ofrecerĂan y el perfil social de los posibles compradores.
AdemĂĄs, la estrategia de comercializaciĂłn de los desarrolladores privados influenciĂł el discurso general del proyecto, diluyendo asĂ los objetivos de inclusiĂłn social de la gestiĂłn pĂșblica con el fin de favorecer la creaciĂłn de un barrio de caracterĂsticas exclusivas. Los ciudadanos con alto poder adquisitivo y los empresarios de alta gama codician los espacios residenciales y comerciales de Puerto Madero. A la CAPM le resulta difĂcil proteger el carĂĄcter pĂșblico aun de los nuevos espacios abiertos del distrito, como por ejemplo la reserva ecolĂłgica, debido a que los residentes del distrito portuario con alto poder adquisitivo desalientan en gran manera la realizaciĂłn de actividades recreativas y deportivas que pudieran atraer a los porteños provenientes de toda la ciudad. En este sentido, la CAPM se limitĂł a articular los intereses de los empresarios privados y los residentes existentes, ignorando las polĂticas diseñadas para el beneficio de muchos habitantes de la ciudad. Las viviendas econĂłmicas y otros elementos que hubieran garantizado la diversidad en la demografĂa residencial de la zona no formaban parte de la tarea encomendada a la CAPM. Se planificaron varios programas sociales con este objetivo como parte de la estrategia mĂĄs amplia para el centro de la ciudad, pero estos programas nunca se materializaron, lo que generĂł el aislamiento de Puerto Madero como un ĂĄrea de desarrollo para una elite.
La escala del proyecto de Puerto Madero, que hubiera sido imposible de gestionar y demasiado riesgosa para los inversores privados en ese momento, demuestra que el sector pĂșblico es capaz de asumir un papel de liderazgo en el desarrollo de la ciudad. Sin embargo, tambiĂ©n demuestra que los estĂĄndares socialmente progresivos son difĂciles de mantener una vez que el proyecto se vuelve prestigioso y los crecientes valores inmobiliarios aumentan la presiĂłn impuesta por los desarrolladores privados. La capacidad de Puerto Madero de autofinanciarse representĂł una espada de doble filo. Por un lado, permitiĂł que se llevara a cabo un proceso de desarrollo dirigido por el estado sin incurrir en costos del gobierno. Debido a que la empresa pĂșblica podĂa diferir el pago de dividendos a sus accionistas, fue capaz de capitalizar las ganancias obtenidas por las ventas de los terrenos y reinvertirlas en obras y servicios pĂșblicos destinados a la zona. El barrio abierto y accesible, dotado de obras de infraestructura pĂșblica y espacios abiertos, protegĂa en gran medida el interĂ©s pĂșblico. Asimismo, el proyecto estimulĂł la actividad econĂłmica y contribuyĂł a un patrĂłn de desarrollo general mĂĄs eficiente en toda la ciudad, los cuales representan dos objetivos importantes de la gestiĂłn pĂșblica.
Sin embargo, los resultados habrĂan sido mejores si hubiera existido un apoyo financiero proveniente de prĂ©stamos de agencias multilaterales a fin de coordinar en forma Ăłptima el ritmo de las ventas y tomar mejores decisiones a largo plazo que impulsaran el beneficio pĂșblico del proyecto. La flexibilizaciĂłn de los requisitos de licitaciĂłn sobre lotes de grandes dimensiones durante la segunda mitad de la dĂ©cada de 1990 aumentĂł las ventas, aunque provocĂł que la mayor parte de la plusvalĂa de los terrenos derivada del Ășltimo aumento de precios inmobiliarios se devengara a favor de los grandes inversores que se habĂan comprometido en primera instancia.
En el año 2011, la CAPM transfiriĂł el mantenimiento de todas las ĂĄreas desarrolladas a la ciudad y se comprometiĂł a finalizar las restantes obras pĂșblicas para el año 2013. En la actualidad, los ingresos y los gastos de la CAPM estĂĄn equilibrados. Los ingresos se ven limitados al alquiler de los diques y los lugares de estacionamiento. Los bienes de la CAPM consisten en varias propiedades (oficinas, lotes), cuyo producto constituye las ganancias de la empresa y cuyo valor de mercado se calcula en aproximadamente 50 millones de dĂłlares. Estas ganancias podrĂan servir para iniciar nuevos emprendimientos de capital, o podrĂan transferirse a los accionistas cuando decidan disolver la CAPM. La solidez de los estados contables de la CAPM es una realidad, aunque la crĂtica de las que fue objeto durante el desarrollo de Puerto Madero podrĂa constituir un obstĂĄculo al acceso del gobierno a nuevos emprendimientos.
La inversiĂłn pĂșblica inicial en Puerto Madero fue de 120 millones de dĂłlares, conformada por el terreno (tasado originalmente en 60 millones de dĂłlares) y un conjunto de servicios intangibles, tales como el diseño del proyecto, la reconocida experiencia y la consultorĂa. Las ventas totales de terrenos ascendieron a 257,7 millones de dĂłlares, con un costo general (administraciĂłn, impuestos) de cerca de 92 millones de dĂłlares (sin contar los costos de puesta en marcha, que no implicaron operaciones monetarias), lo que deja una modesta tasa de retorno. Aunque los precios deberĂan haber sido promocionales durante la etapa inicial del desarrollo, los valores de venta podrĂan haberse aumentado al transcurrir el tiempo si dichas ventas se hubieran programado con el fin de aprovechar el aumento de los precios de mercado. Para obtener tasas de retorno mĂĄs altas, hubiera sido necesario un valor de venta promedio mĂĄs alto, una mejor programaciĂłn de la venta de los terrenos y un compromiso mĂĄs modesto en cuanto a las obras pĂșblicas, tales como la infraestructura, el espacio pĂșblico y los parques. La CAPM podrĂa haber ahorrado una cantidad considerable si la construcciĂłn de puentes y pasarelas no se hubieran extendido mĂĄs allĂĄ del perĂmetro del proyecto, bajo la jurisdicciĂłn municipal.
Los resultados del proyecto hubieran sido muy diferentes si los terrenos se hubieran vendido sin mejoras o si el proyecto hubiera estado en manos de desarrolladores privados. En este sentido, resulta importante destacar que, al momento de esbozar el proyecto, el riesgo se consideraba, en general, alto, y la escala de inversiĂłn superaba la capacidad de los inversores privados locales. De manera similar, los inversores internacionales no hubieran estado dispuestos a asumir este nivel tan alto de riesgo sin mayores concesiones de parte del gobierno. AdemĂĄs, los desarrolladores privados estaban interesados en promover proyectos de gran envergadura con acceso restringido casi exclusivamente a los propietarios. Mediante el control ejercido por el gobierno a travĂ©s de la empresa pĂșblica se garan-tizaron ciertos atributos finales del proyecto, tales como el aporte de espacios pĂșblicos y el carĂĄcter holĂstico del desarrollo, con el fin de asegurar los beneficios para la comunidad.
ConclusiĂłn
PodrĂa decirse que los objetivos originales del proyecto (estimular la actividad econĂłmica, afirmar el rol del centro de la ciudad, contribuir a la reducciĂłn de patrones de desarrollo no deseados y mejorar las condiciones de vida) se han cumplido. El proyecto de Puerto Madero generĂł empleos, estimulĂł la economĂa de la ciudad, atrajo grandes niveles de inversiones y sumĂł complejidad al centro de la ciudad, lo que contribuyĂł a su preeminencia y dio como resultado mejoras en las ĂĄreas circundantes. CreĂł ademĂĄs espacios abiertos de alta calidad, renovĂł el sistema metropolitano de parques y mejorĂł el patrĂłn general de desarrollo en Buenos Aires.
No obstante, la relajaciĂłn de los controles de calidad, el amplio alcance de los proyectos y la rapidez con que se han vendido los terrenos en ciertos momentos provocaron una reducciĂłn de los posibles ingresos que el proyecto hubiera podido devengar en beneficio del sector pĂșblico y redundaron en una disminuciĂłn de la capacidad de redistribuciĂłn de esta iniciativa. El acceso al crĂ©dito hubiera fortalecido la posiciĂłn de la CAPM y permitido una programaciĂłn cuidadosa de las ventas de los terrenos y de las mejoras en la zona. Resulta alentador que la ocupaciĂłn residencial haya excedido en gran medida las proyecciones originales, con lo que se consolidĂł una tendencia de repoblar el centro de la ciudad, aunque el proyecto deberĂa haber incluido un porcentaje de viviendas econĂłmicas.
Estos resultados revelan la complejidad de llevar a cabo mĂșltiples iniciativas con el fin de obtener un resultado social equilibrado. Puerto Madero no logrĂł incorporar una mayor combinaciĂłn social, debido a que no se llevaron a cabo otras estrategias para el centro de la ciudad, como por ejemplo la recuperaciĂłn de edificios del patrimonio histĂłrico. Las futuras iniciativas de gestiĂłn de proyectos urbanos deberĂan contemplar factores que aseguraran la continuidad de las polĂticas. Dentro de este marco, resulta importante impulsar la participaciĂłn entre los beneficiarios de intervenciones especĂficas, tales como las viviendas econĂłmicas, ya que su participaciĂłn y compromiso representan la garantĂa mĂĄs sĂłlida para la continuidad de las polĂticas.
Finalmente, el proyecto de Puerto Madero señala la capacidad que el estado ha demostrado tener al tomar la iniciativa de dirigir el proceso de desarrollo urbano. En este caso, el estado dejĂł a un lado su rol normativo y se hizo cargo de una iniciativa de redesarrollo importantĂsima. La CAPM demostrĂł su capacidad de sustentar un complejo proyecto de regeneraciĂłn urbana durante un tiempo prolongado y de mantenerse a flote en medio de un clima polĂtico turbulento y una grave crisis econĂłmica. La constituciĂłn de la empresa pĂșblica representa una innovaciĂłn creativa en cuanto a la gestiĂłn urbana, ya que ofrece un claro ejemplo de cĂłmo lograr el auto-financiamiento de un proyecto y la cooperaciĂłn interjurisdiccional respecto del gobierno urbano. En este sentido, la experiencia de Puerto Madero sirve como un modelo convincente para la gestiĂłn urbana interjurisdiccional y reafirma el rol positivo que puede representar el estado en las iniciativas de planificaciĂłn de la ciudad.
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Sobre los autores
Alfredo Garay fue secretario de planificaciĂłn en Buenos Aires cuando comenzĂł el megaproyecto Puerto Madero, y todavĂa se desempeña en el directorio de la CAPM. Arquitecto y catedrĂĄtico en la Universidad de Buenos Aires, Garay ha recibido numerosos premios nacionales e internacionales en los campos de gestiĂłn urbana y organizaciĂłn de intervenciones de gran envergadura..
Laura Wainer es arquitecta y planificadora urbana en Buenos Aires. En el año 2012, recibió la beca Fulbright, la beca internacional de investigación Delta Kappa Gamma y la beca del presidente de la New School de Nueva York.
Hayley Henderson se ha desempeñado como planificadora urbana en Buenos Aires y en Brisbane, Australia. En la actualidad, es candidata a un doctorado en planificación urbana en la Universidad de Melbourne, Australia.
Demian Rotbart es arquitecto, planificador urbano y profesor adjunto de planificaciĂłn urbana en la Universidad de Buenos Aires.
Old-timers in Detroit like to recall the 1950s and â60s as a Golden Age of urban planning. Under Charles Blessing, the cityâs charismatic head planner from 1953 to 1977, Detroit carried out a series of ambitious attempts to reshape its urban landscape. Sweeping aside a centuryâs worth of tenements and small commercial structures, it created the Mies van der Roheâdesigned Lafayette Park residential development just east of downtown, a light industrial park west of downtown, and block after block of low-rise moderate-income housing on the north side. Edward Hustoles, a retired veteran planner of those years, recalls how Blessing enjoyed such status as Detroitâs visionary that over lunch at a nice restaurant he would sketch his plans all over the tablecloth; if a server complained, Blessing would roll it up and tell her to put it on his bill.
Times change. Blessing retired in the 1970s, and by then Detroit was mired in its long-agonizing slide into Rust Belt ruin. The twin scourges of deindustrialization and suburban sprawl, which hurt so many cities in the American heartland, hit Detroit particularly hard. Numerous factories, so modern when they were built in the early 20th century, looked obsolete by the 1950s and â60s, and were mostly abandoned by the end of the 1980s. The new car-enabled culture of suburbia, aided and abetted by federal highway building and other measures, encouraged hundreds of thousands of residents to flee the city for Birmingham, Troy, and other outlying communities. The exodus was hastened by fraught race relations, which grew especially toxic after the 1967 civil disturbances. Without inhabitants, Detroitâs vast stock of small wood-frame worker housing moldered; arson, crack, metal stripping, blight, and other ills corroded entire neighborhoods, forcing the city to raze block after block of homes in the 1990s and 2000sâa trend accelerated by the 2007â2008 real estate crisis, which compounded a vicious cycle of property tax delinquency and foreclosure, decimating what remained of Detroitâs housing market. Today, the best estimates suggest that at least 24 square miles of Detroitâs 139-square-mile land area are empty, and another six to nine square miles have unoccupied buildings that need to come down. Add in municipal parks that the city no longer maintains and abandoned rights-of-way like old railroad lines, and 25 percent of Detroitâan area larger than Manhattanâis vacant.
By the 1990s, urban planning had become obsolescent as a focus and a guide. A series of mayors tended to latch onto whatever showcase projects came alongâthe much-maligned Renaissance Center in the 1970s, or casino gaming in the late 1990s. Detroitâs municipal planning department found a new role administering federal community development block grants, and, in recent years, the department had more accountants than planners. But in 2010, then-Mayor David Bing initiated a strategic attempt to address the problem of widespread vacancy and the burden it placed on municipal services and budgets. That effort culminated in 2013 with the publication of Detroit Future City, the 354-page comprehensive framework for how Detroit might strengthen and regrow its troubled neighborhoods and repurpose its empty lots and buildings over the coming decades. Advocating widespread âgreeningâ strategiesâincluding âproductive landscapesâ that would put vacant land to new use through reforestation, rainwater retention ponds, the installation of solar panels, and food productionâDetroit Future City won praise as a visionary new way to think about older industrial cities and to include ordinary citizens in the conversation about their future. âIn the annals of civic engagement and community planning, Detroit Future City is probably the most extensive community outreach and planning exercise that Iâve ever encountered,â said George W. McCarthy, president and CEO of the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
Origins and Essence
By 2010, three years before Detroit would file the largest municipal bankruptcy in U.S. history, the population had dwindled to 700,000 from its peak of 1.85 million in 1950. Then-Mayor David Bing needed to realign city services to account for the diminished tax base and thinning of the urban streetscape. His initial suggestion to reporters that he would move the few remaining inhabitants out of some of Detroitâs most abandoned âghostâ neighborhoods drew blistering comparisons to the urban renewal projects of the past and even hoots of âethnic cleansingâ; the idea was quickly shelved. Also that year, the mayor and top aides staged a series of community meetings called Detroit Works to elicit a dialogue with citizens about the need to rethink how the city should operate in the future. But residents had other ideas. The meetings quickly devolved into chaotic complaint sessions where hundreds of residents demanded better street lights, police protection, and other city services fast.
McCarthy, who was then with the Ford Foundation and a supporter of Detroitâs revitalization efforts, said leaders should have known better. âWhen you bring normal citizens into the planning process, they enter the exercise as if itâs a public meeting and the way to be heard is to shout the loudest,â he said. âIf youâre sincere about civic engagement, you have to take the time to train citizens to be planners. You have to devote a significant amount of time and attention to get people to understand that planning is about making difficult decisions in a constrained environment.â
With funding from the Kresge Foundation and other sources, the city regrouped and hired teams of consultants, including nationally respected planning staffers such as Project Director Toni L. Griffin, professor and director of the J. Max Bond Center on Design for the Just City at the Spitzer School of Architecture at the City College of New York. Under Griffinâs leadership, they began to map out the document that would become Detroit Future City.
The group took pains to avoid the word âplanâ when they presented it to the public. Unlike a conventional master plan, which basically creates a map of what uses will go where before the private sector comes in to fill it out with development, Detroit Future City is a strategic framework for thinking about different neighborhood types and how each might evolve given existing trends.
âWe did not want to leave the city with static illustrative pictures of what their city could look like,â Griffin says. âThere were already lots of those around. We wanted to leave the city with a tool that would enable people to manage change, because as you know Detroit is still very much in flux in terms of its governance, fiscal structures, city services, population loss, and ever-changing composition of land vacancy.â
The framework had to enable decision makers to act as that change was occurring over various periods of time. âIt offers different decision-making structures that allow someone to say, if this is your condition today, here are the kinds of options you might think about to move that condition from A to B,â Griffin says. To simplify: If a neighborhood is showing a significant and growing level of vacancy but still retaining some useable housing and commercial stock, the vacant land there could be converted to food production or to a solar panel field to power local businesses. But a neighborhood with little vacancy and with much higher levels of density might plan infill development for its few vacant lots. Rather than suggesting that the corner of Woodward Avenue and 7 Mile Road ought to get a shopping center, the framework offers a series of examples of what might take place given certain neighborhood typologies. The mantra became âevery neighborhood has a future, just not the same future.â
Detroit Future Cityâs greening strategies were particularly important and drew the most attention because of the huge amount of vacant land where development is not a realistic option and probably wonât be for many years to come; perhaps one-third of the entire city cries out for some new purpose and use. The more vacant spots on the map could be rendered productive by the installation of fields of energy-producing solar panels, reforestation, farming, or âblue infrastructure,â such as rainwater retention ponds, bioswales, and canals that provide water for agriculture and that redirect rainwater and snowmelt away from Detroitâs already overburdened combined sewer system. Almost all these uses presumably would be private endeavors but would require city permitting and perhaps other assistance, including zoning changes or partnerships with various philanthropic or nonprofit groups. âYou need to have a greening strategy, so you can use this land in ways that, at a minimum, donât drag down existing populated areas and, at a maximum, enhance the quality of life, economic productivity, and environmental quality for the people of Detroit,â says Alan Mallach, a Detroit Future City consultant, nonresident fellow of the Brookings Institution, and author of Regenerating Americaâs Legacy Cities, published by the Lincoln Institute.
But the plan also envisions significantly greater population densities in those areas of Detroit already undergoing a rebirth, such as the Greater Downtown area, where young professionals have sparked a recent residential boom and where companies led by Quicken Loans, which moved downtown in 2010, have filled up previously vacant office towers. It suggests that Detroitâs existing hospital and manufacturing corridors could and should see concentrated new investment to beef up job training opportunities and new residential and retail development in those nodes. Key employment districts could be linked by new public transit options, such as the M-1 Rail streetcar line now under construction along Woodward Avenue, the cityâs main street, thanks to public-private financing. Construction began in mid-2014 on the $140-million, 3.3-mile line, which will connect downtown from Jefferson Avenue to the cityâs New Center area, another hub of activity, running through the rapidly revitalizing Midtown district. The line is expected to be finished in late 2016. If voters approve a new property tax millage expected to be on the ballot in 2016, M-1 could be followed by a regionwide bus rapid transit system to be built out over the next several years.
Mallach describes Detroit Future City âas a reality check against whatâs actually happening, against how youâre spending your money, where youâre making your investments, what youâre prioritizing, and so forth.â
âDetroit Future City offers a menu,â he adds. âIt doesnât say this site should become an urban farm; it lays out the options.â
Civic Engagement
Deciding what would happen where would be left to the political processâwith neighbors, city leaders, and other stakeholders all taking part. Thus, public input would be critical to success.
In 2012, the Detroit Future City team hired Dan Pitera, a professor at the University of Detroit Mercy (UDM) School of Architecture, to design a new and better civic engagement strategy to harness and direct residentsâ desire for change. Efforts ranged from informal chat sessions at a âroaming table,â designed by UDM architecture students and set up at various locations in town, to a series of meetings at community centers, where 100,000 residents engaged in discussions that informed the urban rehabilitation.
During this planning stage in 2012 and early 2013, a new walk-in office in the Eastern Market district allowed residents to meet staffers, see plans, take surveys, and the like. Those working at the office included staffers from UDMâs Detroit Collaborative Design Center, directed by Pitera, and the nonprofit Community Legal Resources. Piteraâs group also created a mobile phone app to encourage community involvement. And the team created 25 color posters keyed to city issues, such as vacant land or community gardens, for distribution by the thousands throughout the city.
During one Saturday morning meeting in 2012 at the Detroit Rescue Mission, some 50 residents got a peek at what various neighborhoods might become depending on current conditions and residentsâ desires. Some of the attendees gave positive reviews. âThe conversation is just what we need to get back to the real issues,â said Phillis Judkins, 65, of the North End district. And Larry Roberts, 70, who lives in Detroitâs Indian Village neighborhood, said the 2012 public meetings were more productive than the somewhat chaotic mass meetings Detroit Works held in the fall of 2010. âToday it looks like there are people with ideas that can move forward,â he said.
Some skepticism remained, of course, about how many of the good ideas would become policy in the cash-strapped city, and how many might ever be carried out. âIf the city government buys into this plan and communicates to us what theyâre going to do, I think it will work out all right,â Roberts said.
Under current Mayor Mike Duggan, who took office in 2014, a roster of neighborhood offices have opened to deal more closely with citizens and their concerns than previous administrations had done. The level of community involvement to date has been evidence that Detroiters have not given up on their neighborhoods, even in the hardest hit areas.
Rubber Hits the Road
Happily, concerns that Detroit Future City would sit on the shelf gathering dust like so many previous documents in Detroit seem unfounded. With Kresgeâs financial backing and leadership, the Detroit Future City (DFC) Implementation Office was established as a nonprofit charged with realizing the planâs visions and suggestions. Dan Kinkead, an architect who helped to write Detroit Future City, was appointed director of projects. The group now has a fixed location in Detroitâs New Center district and a staff of about 12, including staffers available through various fellowship programs underway in the city. Kenneth Cockrel, a former president of the Detroit City Council who briefly served as interim mayor after then-Mayor Kwame Kilpatrick resigned in disgrace in 2008, was hired at the end of 2013 to be director of the implementation office.
In early 2015, the implementation office had multiple pilot projects underway in partnership with other organizations. These include:
Solar Fields. Working with Focus: HOPE, a nonprofit job training facility in the city, and a small start-up, the DFC team is planning to cover some 15 acres of vacant land with solar panels. Kinkead estimates that the field could produce five megawatts of energyâenough to power several hundred houses. Planners hope to start the project this year or next, but it was unclear how many people it might employ.
Rainwater Retention Ponds. On Detroitâs east side, the DFC staff is considering the creation of a series of rainwater retention ponds in a residential neighborhood to keep rainwater out of the sewer system. The neighborhood, known as Jefferson Village, had been targeted for new single-family housing some 15 years ago, but that project stalled for lack of funding, leaving dozens of vacant lots and little demand for them. So with funding from the local Erb Foundation, and consulting with the Detroit Water & Sewerage Department, the DFC team is targeting several dozen vacant lots for the treatment. They envision that nearby homeowners could see a rate reduction on their water bills, because the department will no longer have to build and maintain as much big-pipe infrastructure to clean up rainwater that mixes in with wastewater. If the effort proved successful, they would expand it citywide.
Roadside carbon buffers. With the nonprofit Greening of Detroit tree-planting organization, one of DFCâs recommendationsâto plant trees as carbon buffers alongside major roads and highwaysâsaw one of the cityâs largest-ever tree-planting blitzes in late 2014 on Detroitâs west side near the Southfield Freeway, a major north-south connector. Volunteers planted some 300 trees in one day along a few blocks. When mature, they will absorb at least some of the carbon emissions from the freeway.
Trish Hubbell, a spokesperson for the Greening of Detroit, said that partnering with the DFC implementation team on such efforts raises the visibility of each project, which in turn helps with fundraising. And the DFC team brings a wealth of knowledge on land use issues to any effort.
âTheir biggest value is that they have the framework, and so they help steer where things go,â Hubbell said. âThe framework adds value to all the opportunities out there.â
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The Urban Farming Controversy
One controversial land use the office has championed stems from a trend Detroit is already well-known forâurban agriculture. Over the past 15 years, Detroit has seen well over 1,000 small community gardens started, including such nationally recognized projects as Earthworks and D-Town Farm, each of which covers a few acres. But currently volunteers perform almost all the farming activity, and the food is consumed by neighbors, donated to food banks, or in a few cases sold at local farmers markets. Detroit has undertaken a lively debate in recent years over the possibility of expanding into large-scale for-profit agriculture. Projects like Hantz Farms and RecoveryPark have mapped ambitious plans to convert hundreds of acres to food production. But each effort remains relatively small scale at the moment, as the debate on the wisdom of large-scale farming continues.
Nevertheless, the DFC team seems committed to much greater food production inside the city, both on vacant land and in abandoned factories where hydroponic farming could take place. The DFC team, for example, is working with the RecoveryPark effort to plan a rainwater retention system to help water crops.
At the very least, farming inside the city could help some local food entrepreneurs grow their businesses, create some jobs, and strengthen the tax base, if only on a modest scale. Food production also helps knit communities together around a purposeful activity, raises nutrition awareness, and puts blighted vacant lots and factories to a productive new use. âDetroit has the opportunity to be the first globally food-secure city,â Kinkead said.
But city officials have yet to sign off on large-scale for-profit farming, fearing that nuisance problems including dust, noise, and odors, will get out of hand. Others question whether the tough economics of farmingâback-breaking labor performed mostly by minimum-wage migrantsâwould ever produce the sort of revenue and jobs to justify the effort. McCarthy remains one of the skeptics. âI thought it was a bad idea to try to grow food,â he says. âThe economics just arenât there; the costs are prohibitive, given the fact that you donât have to drive that far to get out into perfectly good farmland outside Detroit at one tenth the cost.â So the debate continues, with the DFC implementation team working toward greater use of Detroitâs vacant land for food production.
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Consensus Building
Rather than ignoring Detroit Future City as the product of a previous administration, Mayor Duggan has publicly embraced it as his guide. His top aide for jobs and the economy refers to his well-worn copy of Detroit Future City as his âBibleâ for reshaping the city.
Jean Redfield, CEO of NextEnergy, a Detroit nonprofit working toward a sustainable energy future for the city, keeps a copy of Detroit Future City on her desk. âI use it a lot to go back to specific language they use to talk about specific options,â she said. âI use some of the maps and statistics pretty regularly.â And NextEnergy teams up with the DFC implementation team in planning a variety of green-and-blue infrastructure projects. âOur paths cross pretty often,â she said. âWhenever thereâs a Department of Energy or City of Detroit question or challenge around land use, energy infrastructure, street lighting, or solar projects, weâre often working side by side with the folks there.â
As mentioned, the implementation team acts more as a lead advisor to other agencies, such as Greening of Detroit or the cityâs Water & Sewerage Department, than as a primary actor. DFC Implementation Director Kenneth Cockrel calls the team a ânongovernmental planning agency.â He explains, âWe inform decision making, but we are not decisions makers. Ultimately, whatâs in the framework is going to be implemented by the mayor and by city council if they so choose to buy into it. Theyâre the ones who are going to drive implementation.â
Continuing, Cockrel likens the implementation of Detroit Future City âto what happens when a book gets made into a movie. You donât film the book word for word and page for page. Some stuff gets left out, other stuff winds up on screen. I think thatâs ultimately probably going to be the approach that the Duggan administration will take.â
Like any new organization, the DFC team continues to refine its role and search for where it can contribute most. Kinkead agrees their role may best be captured in a paraphrase of the old BASF corporate slogan: the DFC team doesnât do a lot of the innovative projects in Detroit; it just makes a lot of those projects better.
âWe exist in a squishy world,â Kinkead says. âItâs a different kind of ballgame, but our ability to help others is how we do what we do.â
In early 2015, it seemed clear that many of the innovative ideas at the heart of Detroit Future Cityâgreening strategies, energy production, trees as carbon buffers, new development targeted toward already dense districtsâideas that seemed far-fetched even in 2010, when then-Mayor Bing launched his Detroit Works effort, now approach mainstream status.
âNow, itâs not just the environmentalists or the climate change folk talking about carbon forests; itâs residents and the executive directors of community development corporations,â Griffin says. âBusiness leaders and philanthropists are talking about the importance of this. A broader spectrum of constituents talking about issues that arenât necessarily central to their wheelhouse is a very important outcome of the work.â
Perhaps just as important is the widespread realization that Detroit needs to deliver municipal services in a different way, given the realities of the cityâs financial woes and population loss. The city successfully emerged from bankruptcy in late 2014, but at best that gave Detroit some breathing room to begin to grow again. If and when growth resumes, the city has to guide it more smartly than in past periods of expansion, when development sprawled across the landscape in haphazard fashion.
The Road Ahead
One reason why the city and its people were ready for a document like Detroit Future City was the deep understanding that deindustrialization and suburban sprawl had led to Detroitâs problems. âResidents began to understand that they were effectively subsidizing the sprawl and disinvestment. They began to think about ways to change these systems to be more efficient,â Griffin says.
As this article was being prepared for publication, Detroit took another big step toward revitalizing its long-dormant planning activities. Mayor Duggan announced that he had recruited Maurice Coxâthe highly regarded director of the Tulane City Center, a community-based design resource center for New Orleans, and associate dean for Community Engagement at the Tulane University School of Architectureâto serve as Detroitâs new director of planning. In New Orleans, Cox facilitates a wide range of partnerships among Tulane University, the New Orleans Redevelopment Authority, and the City of New Orleans. In Detroit, among other activities, he will help turn some of Detroit Future Cityâs general framework into specific planning recommendations.
If innovative planning is back in style, as it appears to be, itâs more decentralized, less focused on big projects, and more attuned to how conditions on the ground might demand different solutions in each neighborhood. And the number of voices heard in planning discussions is greater than ever before. Perhaps Detroit Future Cityâs final and most important contribution is that it has empowered neighborhoods and citizens as equal partners with high-level professional planners in deciding the future direction of the city.
Indeed, Detroit Future City launched a new age of planning, and it will look little or nothing like that of Blessingâs era. âPlanning has certainly returned, but itâs fundamentally different from how it was 50 years ago,â says Kinkead. âIn the 1950s and â60s, the cityâs broader planning objectives were often manifest from a single municipal government elite.â
âTo move the city forward it takes everybody,â Kinkead says. âItâs not just Detroit Future City. Itâs not just the government. Itâs not just the business sector. Itâs everybody working together.â
John Gallagher covers urban development issues for the Detroit Free Press. His books Reimagining Detroit: Opportunities for Redefining an American City and Revolution Detroit: Strategies for Urban Reinvention are available from Wayne State University Press.
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References
Detroit Future City. 2012. Detroit Future City: 2012 Detroit Strategic Framework Plan. Detroit, MI: Inland Press.
Mallach, Alan and Lavea Brachman. 2013. Regenerating Americaâs Legacy Cities. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
Skidmore, Mark. 2014. âWill a Greenbelt Help to Shrink Detroitâs Wasteland?â Land Lines 26 (4): 8â17.
Liz Wood wanted to buy a house. It was 2006, she had been renting for A decade, and her monthly payments were getting high. She was 43 and steadily employed, earning $34,000 annually plus benefits as a family educator. She didnât want anything fancy, just a place where she could âgather love and bring stability.â She would stay within her means.
Nonetheless, the math was tricky. Wood lives in Duvall, Washington, a town of roughly 7,500 in the foothills of the Cascade Mountains. Steeped in lush forest, Duvall is about 30 miles from Seattle and a mere eight miles from the City of Redmond, the headquarters for Microsoft. The median income in Duvall is nearly twice that of the state of Washington, and homes in this area are expensive. In 2010, the median value of owner-occupied homes in Duvall was $373,500, compared to $262,100 for the state, according to the U.S. Census Bureau.
With few options, Wood eventually decided on a used factory-built home (also known as manufactured housing) for $55,000 in Duvall Riverside Village, a four-acre community of 25 manufactured homes in the middle of downtown Duvall. âItâs amazing here,â she says. âI live on riverfront property, so when I walk out my door I see water, pine trees, and a walking trail that goes from my house to the next town. I wake up in the morning hearing birds. I know all my neighbors; Iâm connected to my community. Iâm a block from the police station. I feel safe.â
But it was still difficult. Wood owned her house, but not the land on which it sits. Instead, she rented the plot for $450 a month, plus water and utilities, as did the other residents of Duvall Riverside Village. As a result, Wood and her neighbors remained largely at the mercy of the property owner, their landlord, and forfeited much of the autonomy and security associated with more traditional home ownership models.
Their landlord prohibited garages, leaving residents limited storage options. He charged them $25 a month per additional car or adult beyond those registered at the time of move-in. He charged $5 a month for every pet and required dogs to be leashed at all times. There was a $5 monthly fee for every extra half-cord of firewood, which Wood needed to fuel her stove. Though he employed a groundskeeper, he didnât install outdoor lights, nor did he maintain the community roads, which were pocked and cracked.
In 2012, Wood and her neighbors received a written notice that the owner was selling the land. Unlike many owners, who prefer to sell their properties to a developer, this landlord was open to selling to residents. He had agreed to host a meeting between the tenants, a real estate broker, and the Northwest Cooperative Development Center, a nonprofit that supports cooperatives. The parties discussed the possibility of establishing a nonprofit, resident-owned cooperative to purchase the property. In doing so, they would conserve the land for manufactured housing, continue living there as a community, and collectively manage it to guarantee a safe, affordable, high-quality experience.
The residents voted to go for it. The landlord had two demands. He wanted fair market value, and he wanted to complete the sale by the end of the year. It was already August. They had five months.
In addition to the collaboration with Northwest Cooperative Development Center, the residents also began working with ROC USA, a New Hampshireâbased nonprofit organization that offers residents of manufactured housing communities a mix of technical assistance and affordable financing to purchase their rented land when it becomes available for sale. Since its establishment in 2008, ROC USA has successfully facilitated 80 of these transactions nationally and secured more than $175 million in financing for them.
ROC USA works with a network of eight regional affiliates, including the Northwest Cooperative Development Center. In Duvall, the nonprofits worked together with the residents to assess the economics of a possible deal and to confirm that the community was a good fit for resident ownership. Next, the organizations helped the residents to hire a third-party lawyer and establish their cooperative, which would operate as a democracy with residents elected into leadership positions by fellow residents. ROC USA assisted the residents to hire an independent engineer and conduct due diligence of the property; secure financing through ROC USAâs lending subsidiary, ROC USA Capital, to purchase the property and undertake critical repairs; and organize the real estate transfer.
On December 27 of that year, the newly formed cooperative bought the Duvall Riverside Village with $1.3 million in purchase financing from ROC USA Capital, granting Wood and her fellow home owners control over their living arrangements, and permanently preserving 25 affordable homes in a town where such housing stock is scarce.
The residents continue to pay $450 a month to rent the land, but now they vote to determine community rules, and use the rent to make improvements and to pay the communityâs mortgage, taxes, and expenses.
âNow, you can have a garage if you want,â explains Wood, who is president of the Duvall residentsâ cooperative and a ROC USA board member. âAnd we spent $35,000 to fix the roads. We donât have to live in fear anymore, so people are willing to invest in their homes. We have annual meetings to vote in projects. We can lower the monthly rent if we are over-budgeting for things we donât need. The bottom line is that we are in control of our own destiny.â
Upon completing the sale, ROC USA and the Northwest Cooperative Development Center have continued providing the residents with technical support to ensure smooth operations.
âIf they had just lent us the money and said, âthese are the guidelines, hereâs what you need to do, have at it,â we would have failed,â explains Wood. âBut they are an ongoing resource. They help us with tough situations, or when we donât know how to do something legally. The goal is for us to become independent and to be able to run our community like a business. Pay your bills, and your house can stay where it is. Period. Forever.â
Benefits
Across the United States, more than 18 million Americans live in factory-built homes, which represent 5 percent of the nationâs housing stock in metro areas, and 15 percent in rural communities. They range significantly in quality. Roughly 25 percent of todayâs manufactured housing stock is the stereotyped, rickety trailers of the 1960s and early 1970s, produced before the federal government introduced quality controls in 1976. The remaining 75 percent complies with the federal standards, and includes charming, energy-efficient homes, indistinguishable to the untrained eye from their site-built counterparts. Though manufactured homes have long been cast aside as a housing choice of last resort, todayâs models are robust, efficient, and inviting, with the potential to help alleviate the nationâs shortage of safe, affordable housing.
Modern manufactured homes cost approximately half as much as their site-built counterparts and can be built five times faster, making them a genuinely viable option for low-income consumers. The production process is less wasteful, and models that comply with the federal governmentâs Energy Star standards offer home owners meaningful energy savings. And they are durable. Whereas manufactured homes built prior to the 1976 regulations were made to be portable, like recreational vehicles, modern models are built with stronger materials and designed to be permanent. Todayâs manufactured homes can sit on any foundation that would otherwise accommodate a site-built structure, creating the flexibility to use the housing in a wide range of geographies and environments.
âThe manufactured housing stock is a critical component of the nationâs affordable housing,â says George McCarthy, president and CEO of the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. âIt easily outnumbers our subsidized stock two or three times in almost every market.â
Manufactured homes are cheaper to produce than site-built houses because of the manufacturing process. As Andrea Levere, president of the Corporation for Enterprise Development, writes in the Huffington Post, the âterm âmanufactured housingâ itself has less to do with quality and more to do with the production process, which is a derivative of Fordâs assembly lines. This model allows manufactured homes to be built in a more controlled work environment, translating into predictable costs, increased efficiencies, and reduced wasteâ (Levere 2013).
In 2013, a new, energy-efficient manufactured home cost $64,000, compared to $324,500 for a new, site-built one, according to the U.S. Census, though the price for the latter includes the land. Even after stripping out the land costs, manufactured homes are still significantly less expensive, averaging $44 per square foot, versus $94 per square foot for site-built homes. And they are unsubsidized, which is a boon given the extremely short supply of subsidized housing compared to demand. Currently, only one in four income-qualified families receives a housing subsidy according to the Bipartisan Policy Commission, leaving the remaining 75 percent in need of an affordable, unsubsidized alternative. By helping to fill that gap, manufactured housing can relieve some of the demand for subsidized housing that state and federal governments are struggling to supply in the face of shrinking budgets. âThe majority of families who live in manufactured housing would qualify for subsidized housing, but instead they choose this less expensive and unsubsidized option,â says McCarthy.
The stock is also very versatile, argues McCarthy, who cites its role in housing people during the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Sandy. âRecovery workers got 17 manufactured homes on the ground in New Jersey within weeks of the hurricaneâpermanent homes for displaced renters, not the problematic âKatrina trailers.â And they did it before most organizations even had a housing plan. This speaks to the efficiency and nimbleness of building manufactured housing. The production times are about 80 percent shorter than for site-built homes, making them the best housing option for disaster response.â
Nevertheless, manufactured housing often gets a bad rap, due largely to the widespread misperception that todayâs models are the same as the earliest generations of mobile homes built prior to the introduction of quality control standards by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development in 1976. Today, there are roughly 2 million of these pre-1976 homes; many are barely hanging together and house the nationâs most vulnerable populations, including the elderly and disabled. Though the pre-1976 stock is virtually unrelated to its present-day counterpart, these older, dilapidated dwellings dominate the general public perception of manufactured homes in the United States.
The housing stockâs reputation is further diminished by the vulnerabilities facing home owners who do not own the land on which they live. Roughly 3 million people live in one of the nationâs 50,000 manufactured housing communities, while another 3 million rent on private property. There are manufactured housing communities in every state in the country. Like Duvall Riverside Village, many of them are on prime real estate, and the landowners routinely receive purchase offers from developers.
Advocates working to improve the manufactured home ownership experience, and to promote the stockâs viability as affordable housing, are focusing on three critical areas of innovation: conserving mobile-home parks; replacing pre-1976 units with modern, energy-efficient homes; and increasing access to affordable financing for potential buyers, which is virtually unavailable in the current market and is imperative to building equity and preserving a homeâs resale value.
Conserving Manufactured Housing Communities
The conversion of Duvall Riverside Village from a privately owned mobile home community to a resident-owned cooperative is not common. For every community available for purchase that is successfully preserved as affordable housing, there are many more that end up sold for redevelopment, displacing residents who may lack good alternatives.
âItâs not as simple as just moving the home,â says Ishbel Dickens, president of the National Manufactured Home Owners Association. âFirst, thereâs the question of whether the home can even be moved. It may be too old or unstable to survive a move. And even if it can be moved, itâs expensive to do so, and very hard to find a space in another community. In most instances, when a park closes, the residents are probably going to lose the home and all their equity in it. In all likelihood, they will never own a home again. Theyâll likely end up on a wait list for subsidized housing, or may even end up homeless.â
To some degree, itâs an accident of history that so many of todayâs mobile home parks occupy plots of coveted real estate, says Paul Bradley, president of ROC USA. As he explains it, in the late 1950s and 1960s, Americans began to embrace transportable trailers and campers, in part because of a cultural shift toward outdoor recreation, and in part because postâWorld War II factories began producing them to utilize excess manufacturing capacity, making them widely available and affordable. As the units grew in popularity, they transitioned from temporary structures to permanent ones, and people began adding makeshift carports and sunrooms. At the time, urban planners accepted the evolution toward permanency. As they saw it, most of the trailers were on land that no one else was using in outer-circle developments. Why not let these campers stay for awhile, until the cities expanded to meet them, at which point the land would be redeveloped?
âThese original communities were built with a plan to close them,â says Bradley. âBack then, no one contemplated the full implications of creating a housing stock for which home owners lacked control of the underlying land. No one anticipated that these communities would be full of low- and moderate-income home owners who spent their own money to buy these homes and had few alternatives. And thatâs what we are still grappling with today. That lack of control of the land means that home owners live with a deep sense of insecurity and the feeling that itâs irrational to make investments in their properties because they wonât get it back. Whatâs the implication for home owners who cannot rationally argue for investing in their home? What does that mean for the housing stock? For neighborhoods?â
Short-sighted land use policies are not the only challenge to preserving manufactured housing communities. An equally onerous obstacle is the lack of legal protections afforded to residents. In 34 states and the District of Columbia, the landowner can sell the property without giving residents the opportunity to purchase it. In fact, in most states, the landowner doesnât have to notify residents that the community is for sale; the landowner can wait until the property has been sold to inform residents of the transaction, suddenly leaving them in a tenuous position. Even the 16 states that require the owner of a manufactured housing community to provide residents advance notice of a sale do not necessarily afford tenants the necessary protections. âIn most of the states with advance notice, there are so many limitations on the notice requirements that it is rarely of any use to residents,â says Carolyn Carter, director of advocacy at the National Consumer Law Center.
To better protect residents, advocates support legislative reforms to state laws and tax incentives for landowners who sell to residents. The most effective of these strategies are state laws requiring a landowner to give residents both advance notice of the saleâideally 60 daysâand the opportunity to purchase the property, argues Carter. According to her, there are six states with laws that âwork on the ground and provide effective opportunities for residents to purchase their communities,â including New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Florida, Vermont, and Delaware. She says Oregon passed promising legislation in January 2015.
âIn those states with effective notice and opportunity to purchase laws, resident ownership takes off,â Carter explains. Roughly 46 percent of the 80 communities that ROC USA supports are in either New Hampshire or Massachusettsâtwo small states with some of the nationâs strongest resident protections. There are an additional 89 resident-owned cooperatives in New Hampshire that predate ROC USAâs launch.
To understand the value of strong consumer laws for residents, consider the story of Ryder Woods, a 174-unit mobile home park in Milford, Connecticut, 11 miles south of New Haven, just off a major thoroughfare. Connecticut is one of 19 states that either offer tax incentives or provide residents âsomeâ protections when a community is sold, but also contain âsignificant gaps,â according to Carter.
In 1998, Ryder Woodsâ landowner sold the property to developers. He informed the residents via eviction notices, in violation of state laws requiring him both to give them advance notice of the pending sale and to provide them the right of first refusal to purchase the land. Ryder Woods had an active home owners association, and very quickly they organized protests and petitions and lobbied the state legislature to reverse the sale. Eventually, the local news picked up their story, at which point a Milford-based attorney volunteered her services to help them. As she dug into the case, she realized that the law was on the side of the residents and that the community needed more legal support than she alone could offer. She enlisted help from a friend and fellow attorneyâa partner at a prominent, Hartford-based firmâwho agreed to take the case pro bono and assigned it a team of attorneys. The case ended up going to trial, eventually making its way to the stateâs highest court. Uninterested in the unfolding legal headache, the original buyer resold the property to a second developer.
Four years after the original sale, the courts ruled in favor of the residents. In an unprecedented deal, and as required as part of the settlement, the second developer purchased a new piece of land a mile from the original parcel and completely rebuilt the community there. The developer purchased 174 new mobile homes and sold them to the residents at significantly reduced prices with more favorable mortgage terms than any available in the conventional financing market. He built a community center and a pond, complete with swans. And, as required by their agreement, he provided the residents the opportunity to form a cooperative and buy the land, which they did in 2009 with $5.4 million in purchase financing from ROC USA Capital. They closed on their purchase in the offices of the Hartford firm, which had continued to volunteer its services to the residents through the saleâs completion. Today, there is a Walmart on the land that housed the original Ryder Woods community.
âSometimes, when we look back, we think it was crazy. We chartered a bus, went to Hartford, spoke to the legislature, and just fought it. We stuck together and won against two big-time, billion-dollar developers,â explains Lynn Nugent, 68, a part-time merchandise associate at Sears, and one of the residents who helped organize the campaign, along with her husband, a retired locksmith. âNow I always say, âSomebody else used to own us, and now we own ourselves.ââ
Improving Access to Quality, Affordable Manufactured Homes
Unlike the residents of Ryder Woods, many owners of manufactured homes struggle to secure a quality unit with affordable financing. Here again, legislation is a primary culprit. Under federal law, manufactured homes are considered personal property, like a car or a boat, opposed to the real property designation assigned to traditional homes. Consequently, buyers cannot access mortgage loans. Instead, financing is available in the form of personal âchattelâ loans. More expensive than mortgage loans, they average an additional 50 to 500 basis points and provide fewer consumer protections. More than 70 percent of purchase loans for manufactured homes are these higher-cost loans, which are considered a proxy for subprime products.
âThis second-tier status is one of the biggest limitations to increasing the stock of permanently affordable manufactured homes,â says McCarthy. âIt makes financing the homes more challenging and expensive than it should be, and it diminishes the homesâ wealth-building potential because it reduces effective demand for existing units.â
While the dream fix would be to change federal titling laws, such revisions are not forthcoming. Instead, Next Step, a Kentucky-based nonprofit organization, has established âManufactured Housing Done Right (MHDR).â This innovative strategy works to make high-quality, affordable manufactured homesâand financingâavailable to low- and moderate-income consumers through a combination of energy-efficient homes, home buyer education, and affordable financing. Hereâs how it works.
First, Next Step gives low-income buyers access to high-quality manufactured homes. The organization created a portfolio of models that are both robust and affordable. Each Next Step home meets or exceeds Energy Star standards, reducing utility costs for the home owner and shrinking the environmental footprint. According to Next Step, testing has shown these homes to be 30 percent more efficient than a baseline code home and 10 to 15 percent more efficient than a baseline Energy Star home. On average, this results in $1,800 in energy savings each year for every pre-1976 mobile home replacement and $360 each year for every new home placement.
Additionally, Next Step homes are âvalue engineered to ensure affordability while upholding quality standards.â They are installed on permanent foundations, providing for greater structural support against wind and reducing settling issues. The homes contain high-quality flooring and insulation, which helps to increase durability and reduce energy costs. And because water is the number one problem for foundations, Next Step homes contain additional safeguards to protect against moisture.
Improving Access to Sustainable Financing
Next Step also makes sure the home buyers can secure sustainable, affordable financing. âOne of the problems facing the industry is that the capital markets donât participate in a big way,â explains Stacey Epperson, CEO of Next Step. âThe secondary market is not there in any meaningful way, so there are very few lenders in this marketplace and very few options for buyers. Our solution is to prepare our borrowers for home ownership, and then bring them good loans.â
Next Step works with a mix of nonprofit and for-profit lenders, vetted by the organization, to provide safe, reasonably priced financing. In return, Next Step reduces the lendersâ risk. The homes are designed to meet the lendersâ requirements, and the home buyers receive comprehensive financial education so that they are equipped to succeed as home buyers. Consequently, Next Step home buyers not only secure a better initial mortgage, but also have the capacity to build equity and obtain a good resale price for the home should they decide to sell it one day.
Importantly, each Next Step home is placed on a permanent foundation in order to qualify the home owner for certain government-backed mortgage programs, which are less expensive than a chattel product. Next Step estimates it has saved its 173 home buyers approximately $16.1 million in interest payments.
âRight now, close to 75 percent of all financing for manufactured housing is going out as chattel. But 70 percent of new manufactured homes are going out on private land where, in many cases, the home could be put on a permanent foundation, and the owner could get a mortgage with a lower interest rate and a longer term,â says Epperson.
The MHDR model is innovative in part because it is scalable. Next Step trains and relies on a membership network of nonprofit organizations to implement the model in their respective communities. Next Step sells the homes to members at competitive prices, and then member organizations oversee the process of identifying and educating buyers, assisting them to secure the loan, and managing the installation.
âThe way the industry works, there has never really been a way for a nonprofit to buy a manufactured home at wholesale prices. Thatâs what weâve engineered, and thatâs what makes these homes a lot more affordable than if the nonprofit or home owner tried to buy them on their own,â explains Kevin Clayton, president and CEO of Clayton Homes, one of the nationâs largest producers of manufactured housing, and one of Next Stepâs long-time supporters.
âThe Next Step program works because it sets people up for success,â says Clayton. âNext Step takes them through home ownership counseling, and supports home owners if they have a hardship down the road. They get to buy the house for a lot less than they otherwise could have, build equity in the home, and have a low monthly loan payment and energy costs.â
Cyndee Curtis, a Next Step home owner, agrees. Curtis was 27, single, and pregnant when she purchased a used, 1971 Fleetwood mobile home for $5,000 in 2001. She put it on the lot she owned just outside the town of Great Falls, Montana.
âI didnât have money, I didnât have a degree, and I didnât have choices,â says Curtis. âThe old steel septic tank was a ticking time bomb, with rust holes. The carpet was worn through, the linoleum underneath had burn spots on it, and the ceiling leaked where an addition had been added. Every year, I would buy construction books, go to Home Depot, and ask how to fix that leak. And every year I ended up there by myself, trying to fix it. There was mold on the doorway from that leak, and I had a newborn in there.â
In 2005, Curtis went back to school for two years, obtained her nursing degree, and began working as a licensed practical nurse, earning $28,500 a year. âI figured now I am earning a livable wage and can explore my options,â says the single mother of two. âI wanted something that my kids could grow up in and be proud of, and to make the most of owning the lot I lived on.â
But her credit was poor, and eventually she ended up at NeighborWorks Montana, a nonprofit Next Step Network member that told her about the Next Step program. Over the next two and a half years, Curtis worked with the staff of NeighborWorks Montana to repair her credit. With their assistance, she secured a mortgage and purchased a Next Step home for $102,000, which included not only the house but also the removal, disposal, and replacement of her old septic system. Because the Next Step home is on a permanent foundation that meets certain qualificationsâand because of Curtisâs improved credit history, income, and geographyâshe qualified for a mortgage from the U.S. Department of Agricultureâs Rural Development program, which was significantly less expensive than the more common chattel products. Additionally, whereas Curtisâs previous mobile home was titled like a car, her Next Step home is deeded like a site-built house. Consequently, a future buyer will also be eligible to apply for a traditional mortgage.
Curtis says her Next Step home has provided her significant energy savings. âI have 400 square feet more now than I had previously. I went from having one bathroom to two. And still both my gas and power bills have been cut by about two-thirds.â
She continues. âMy house is a thousand percent better than what I lived in before. If a person goes inside my house, they canât tell itâs a manufactured home. It has nice doorways, nice walls that are textured. It looks like any new home you would want to live in.â
âSometimes people think they have to suffer with poor housing conditions. I know how it is, and I want them to know that if you put in some hard work, you can make a difference for yourself and your family.â
Loren Berlin is a writer and communications consultant based in Greater Chicago.
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References
Levere, Andrea. 2013. âHurricane Sandy and the Merits of Manufactured Housing.â Huffington Post. January 8. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/andrea-levere/hurricane-sandy-manufactured-housing_b_2426797.html